Parasit Vectors [JOURNAL]
Sun
200 papers
Divergent urban-rural drivers of malaria vector ecology: a 6-year One Health longitudinal study in China.
Xu E, Zhu G, Wang Y … +9 more , Chong Z, Cheng T, Liang J, Liang W, Cao J, Müller O, Zhao J, Li R, Lu G
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42298720 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Sustaining malaria elimination requires addressing residual transmission driven by Anopheles sinensis amid rapid environmental change, with a critical knowledge gap in understanding how climate, agricultural...
BACKGROUND: Sustaining malaria elimination requires addressing residual transmission driven by Anopheles sinensis amid rapid environmental change, with a critical knowledge gap in understanding how climate, agricultural practices, and urbanization shape vector ecology. We quantified the One Health drivers of An. sinensis biting activity and population dynamics along urban-rural landscapes in eastern China to inform targeted control. METHODS: We conducted longitudinal surveillance (2016-2021) in both rural and urban settings in eastern China. Biting rates and adult densities of An. sinensis were monitored using human-baited double net traps and UV-light traps. We employed a One Health concept-based analytical framework integrating generalized linear mixed models combined with distributed lag non-linear models (GLMM-DLNM) to assess lagged climate effects, regression analyses for socio-demographic, urbanization, and livestock effects, and random forests to determine variable importance. Models were validated using cross-correlation functions with the Modified Chelton method to account for temporal autocorrelation. RESULTS: The six-year surveillance documented 49,970 An. sinensis specimens, confirming its dominance as the primary malaria vector. We found divergent ecological drivers between urban and rural landscapes. Temperature was the dominant predictor, with biting activity and population peaking at 27.45-30.13 °C after a 1-month lag in rural settings. Precipitation exhibited threshold effects, with significant risk peaking elevation observed between 65.57 and 99.66 mm in rural settings. In urban settings, the peak risks associated with temperature and precipitation occurred at the highest levels. In rural settings, a male-biased sex ratio increased biting rates by 12.2-14.0% (IRR = 1.122-1.140). Furthermore, crop cultivation elevated vector risk (IRR = 1.034-1.043), whereas cattle or buffalo presence provided strong zooprophylaxis (IRR = 0.667-0.780). Urbanization rate modestly increased vector density (IRR = 1.053-1.077). We identified a protective urban density paradox, where higher human population density suppressed vector populations (IRR = 0.633-0.682). Cross-correlation function analyses indicated that One Health-based models captured 37.8-90.8% of the spatiotemporal variation across sites. CONCLUSIONS: Climatic, zooprophylactic, and anthropogenic factors synergistically shape An. sinensis ecology. Sustaining elimination requires strategies harnessing protective urban factors and optimizing livestock management and agricultural planning in high-risk rural regions. Our One Health framework provides a replicable model for mitigating residual transmission globally.
Ticks (Ixodida: Argasidae, Ixodidae, Khimairidae, and Nuttalliellidae) of the world.
Dantas-Torres F, Mans BJ
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42289755 · Full text
The taxonomy of ticks (order Ixodida) has changed significantly over the past few decades. Many species have been described, synonymized, invalidated, or reinstated. The genus-level classification of ticks in the familie...
The taxonomy of ticks (order Ixodida) has changed significantly over the past few decades. Many species have been described, synonymized, invalidated, or reinstated. The genus-level classification of ticks in the families Argasidae, Ixodidae, and Nuttalliellidae has also been revised. Here, we list 1033 tick species recognized as valid, including 21 fossil species. These ticks are grouped into four families: Argasidae (17 genera, 221 species), Ixodidae (20 genera, 800 species), Khimairidae (one genus, one species), and Nuttalliellidae (three genera, 11 species). An updated classification of tick genera is also provided.
Nationwide seroprevalence of canine vector-borne pathogens in dogs in Spain.
Montoya-Matute A, Checa R, Gómez-Velasco C … +7 more , Gálvez R, Mendoza I, Sarquis J, Barrera JP, Estévez-Sánchez E, García-Rupérez D, Miró G
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42289747 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) are a health risk for both dogs and humans. This nationwide study sought to determine the seropositivity of Leishmania infantum and Ehrlichia canis and the positivity of D...
BACKGROUND: Canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) are a health risk for both dogs and humans. This nationwide study sought to determine the seropositivity of Leishmania infantum and Ehrlichia canis and the positivity of Dirofilaria immitis, the main vector-borne pathogens prevalent in Europe, in apparently healthy dogs from Spain. Possible associations between seropositivity/positivity and epidemiological variables were also assessed, respectively. METHODS: In a survey conducted in all Spanish 50 provinces, 11,886 dogs from 609 veterinary clinics were tested using the URANOvet® diagnostic rapid test to detect D. immitis antigen, and antibodies against L. infantum and E. canis. Data were collected regarding sex, age, habitat, clinical signs compatible with each pathogen and the regular use of ectoparasiticides. RESULTS: The overall seropositivity was 17.3% (1915/11,048) for L. infantum, and 3.4% (315/9,125) for E. canis. Positivity for D. immitis was 3.2% (314/9,938). A considerable proportion of infected dogs showed no clinical signs, representing 17.7% of L. infantum, 64.1% of D. immitis, and 35.9% of E. canis positive cases. Significant differences in the epidemiological variables examined (P < 0.05) were related to seropositivy/positivity for the three pathogens examined, including geographic location, habitat, associated clinical signs and use of ectoparasiticides. While a higher seropositivity of L. infantum and positivity for D. immitis antigen were recorded in older dogs (P < 0.001), male dogs showed a higher seropositivity of L. infantum (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that dogs in Spain are consistently exposed to all three vector-borne pathogens analysed. Veterinarians should include these CVBDs in their differential diagnoses and encourage the use of repellents and other prophylactic measures to prevent their transmission by arthropod vectors, considering regional epidemiological risk and lifestyle. Our findings also highlight the need for early detection by routine screening of clinically healthy dogs, as they could be important subclinical carriers.
Live triatomine bug, vector of Trypanosoma cruzi , found engorged in Lisbon hotel room: A first for Portugal and for Europe.
Peterson JK, Kelley AR, Antoszewski T … +19 more , Brown M, Cortes H, Easton PI, Ferry G, Freeman T, Freiwald C, Hagen E, Kinnaird H, Lewin L, Lewis M, McNulty J, Moore N, Mullis E, Pettit S, Schultz L, Sharp S, Stocker W, Tunstall J, de Oliveira J
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42289717 · Full text
Triatomine bugs are blood feeding insects that transmit the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, causative agent of Chagas disease. The bugs are found primarily in the Americas with a few species in Asia and Africa. Here, we repo...
Triatomine bugs are blood feeding insects that transmit the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, causative agent of Chagas disease. The bugs are found primarily in the Americas with a few species in Asia and Africa. Here, we report the first case of a live triatomine bug in Europe, found in a Lisbon hotel room. In August 2025 the hotel room occupants discovered a triatomine bug perched on the headboard of their bed. Upon capture, bright red blood emerged from the bug; the occupants suspected that it had bitten them during the night. The bug was identified morphologically as triatomine species Hospesneotomae protracta, which was confirmed molecularly. Hospesneotomae protracta is native to the southwestern USA and northern Mexico, where it is a competent T. cruzi vector. Trypanosoma cruzi was not detected in this specimen. Although this case likely represents an accidental importation, it illustrates the ease with which disease vectors can be unknowingly transported globally. Ergo it is crucial to document and share these findings to prevent introductions of non-native arthropods of medical importance.
In vivo reduction of Treg expansion in rodent helminth-malaria coinfection.
Bourbon L, Dusuel A, Pernet N … +4 more , Rialland M, Roche B, Faivre B, Sorci G
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42288937 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Parasitic helminths modulate host immunity to establish chronic infections, often expanding regulatory T cells (Tregs) to suppress inflammation. However, how helminths adjust immunomodulation during coinfecti...
BACKGROUND: Parasitic helminths modulate host immunity to establish chronic infections, often expanding regulatory T cells (Tregs) to suppress inflammation. However, how helminths adjust immunomodulation during coinfection with fast-replicating microparasites remains unclear. Here, we investigated the immune modulation dynamics in a murine model coinfected with the nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus (Hp) and the protozoan Plasmodium yoelii (Py). METHODS: We compared Treg expansion in single Hp infected and coinfected mice, assessed Hp excretory-secretory products (HES) for Treg induction in vitro, measured expression of the TGF-β mimic Hp-TGM-1 gene, and conducted experimental evolution over eight generations in single and coinfected hosts. RESULTS: Although coinfected mice exhibited reduced Treg expansion in vivo, HES collected from worms in single infected and coinfected hosts induced similar Treg expansion in vitro. Furthermore, Hp-TGM-1 expression was found to be upregulated in worms from coinfected hosts. Experimental evolution revealed no consistent differences between Hp lines (i.e., parasites maintained in single infected or coinfected hosts). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that reduced Treg expansion during coinfection is driven by the host rather than the parasite, which informs our understanding of immune modulation in helminth-malaria coinfections.
Field comparison of BG-Pro configurations with CDC light traps and evaluation of the BG-Counter 2 trap for automated mosquito surveillance in urban and rural Thailand.
Anakerit V, Eiamsam-Ang S, Samung Y … +8 more , Phayakkaphon A, Bantuchai S, Geier M, Weber M, Yin MS, Lawpoolsri S, Haddawy P, Sriwichai P
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42288928 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Entomological surveillance programmes need traps that perform reliably across vector taxa and ecological settings, and automated tools that reduce labour without compromising data quality. We evaluated BG-Pro...
BACKGROUND: Entomological surveillance programmes need traps that perform reliably across vector taxa and ecological settings, and automated tools that reduce labour without compromising data quality. We evaluated BG-Pro trap configurations and the BG-Counter 2 against the standard CDC light trap (CDC-LT) across contrasting urban and rural ecologies in Thailand. METHODS: We compared CDC light traps (CDC-LT) baited with CO₂, BG-Pro traps (BG-Lure + CO₂), and inverted BG-Pro traps (BG-Lure + CO₂) using a 3 × 3 Latin square design over 270 trap-days across two urban sites (Bangkok and Nakhon Pathom; Nov 2024-Mar 2025) and one rural malaria-endemic site (Tha Song Yang, Tak; Jul - Oct 2024). Trap performance was analysed using generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) to estimate incidence rate ratios (IRRs). The BG-Counter 2 accuracy was assessed over 60 trap-days by comparing automated with manual counts. RESULTS: A total of 54,054 mosquitoes representing six genera were collected, dominated by Culex (77.6%). Across sites, BG-Pro produced the highest overall catches (urban mean 946.04; rural mean 13.29 mosquitoes/trap-day) and outperformed CDC-LT in both urban (IRR = 6.11) and rural (IRR = 2.64) settings, while the inverted BG-Pro traps captured the fewest mosquitoes. Genus-specific patterns were consistent across ecological settings: BG-Pro achieved the highest mean capture rates for Aedes (urban 8.3; rural 1.4 mosquitoes/trap-day) and Culex (urban 936.3; rural 8.3 mosquitoes/trap-day), indicating stronger performance for culicines relative to CDC-LT. In the rural site, overall captures of Anopheles minimus were very low across all traps, while CDC-LT sampled a broader range of anopheline taxa. The BG-Counter 2 median accuracy was high in urban sites (89.0%) but low in the rural site (20.6%), with the sensor overcounting mosquitoes on the majority of trap-days in both settings. CONCLUSIONS: No single trap optimally samples all vector groups across ecological settings. BG-Pro (BG-Lure + CO₂) showed promising utility for operational culicine surveillance in urban Thailand, whereas CDC-LT remains preferable for anopheline monitoring in rural malaria-risk settings. The BG-Counter 2 can support near-real-time trend monitoring in low-background urban environments but requires site-specific calibration before rural deployment. These findings support a context-specific surveillance strategy that combines complementary traps rather than relying on a single platform.
First molecular evidence of Rickettsia spp. in Triatoma rubrofasciata: implications for vector ecology and zoonotic transmission.
Qin B, Wei W, Tang L … +12 more , Deng P, Liu X, Li L, Zhou Q, Hou Y, Pan H, Liang J, Fu X, He S, Li Y, Liu D, Shi Y
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42288861 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Rickettsia is an emerging global pathogen with incompletely understood transmission cycles. While triatomine bugs are established vectors for Trypanosoma cruzi, their potential role in the ecology of Ricketts...
BACKGROUND: Rickettsia is an emerging global pathogen with incompletely understood transmission cycles. While triatomine bugs are established vectors for Trypanosoma cruzi, their potential role in the ecology of Rickettsia spp. remains unexplored. This study investigated the presence and genetic characteristics of Rickettsia spp. in Triatoma rubrofasciata and sympatric hosts in southern China. METHODS: A total of 362 T. rubrofasciata specimens including the fecal samples, head tissues and gut were screened for Rickettsia DNA using nested PCR targeting six genes (groEL, rrs, gltA, 17-kDa, ompA, and ompB). In addition, 64 fleas, 136 ticks, and 69 wild rodents were tested. Positive amplicons were sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS: Rickettsia DNA was detected in eight (2.2%, 8/362) T. rubrofasciata specimens, with Rickettsia felis specifically identified in four of these positive samples; the species of the remaining four could not be determined. The bacterium was detected across multiple anatomical sites, including the head (which contains the salivary glands), the gut, and fecal samples. Surveillance of sympatric hosts revealed a markedly higher prevalence in fleas (57.8%) and wild rats (4.3%), whereas ticks harbored a distinct agent related to Candidatus Rickettsia jingxinensis (29.4%). Genomic analyses indicated high conservation of key loci among R. felis strains across hosts, with a stable ompA gene variation distinguishing vector- and rodent-derived lineages. Phylogenetically, all R. felis sequences formed a distinct clade separate from tick-associated rickettsiae. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms for the first time the presence of Rickettsia in T. rubrofasciata, including R. felis and Rickettsia sp. The R. felis was found co-circulating in fleas and rodents, while ticks harbored a distinct Rickettsia, indicating separate transmission cycles in sympatric hosts. Genetic divergence in ompA further suggests host-adaptive evolution between vector- and rodent-associated strains. These findings suggest that T. rubrofasciata may serve as a previously unrecognized interface in the epidemiology of flea-borne spotted fever in southern China. They also highlight the expanded vector range of Rickettsia and underscoring the ecological complexity of its transmission, calling for broader surveillance of nontraditional vectors in endemic regions.
Bartonella transmission and gut microbiome dynamics in Ceratophyllus sciurorum fleas and their edible dormouse hosts (Glis glis).
Klimešová B, Volfová K, Hammerbauerová I … +6 more , Dulavová K, Pajer P, Bundilová K, Modrý D, Adamík P, Votýpka J
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42277889 · Full text
BACKGROUND: The genus Bartonella comprises facultative intraerythrocytic bacteria capable of causing long-lasting bacteremia in their natural hosts, with zoonotic potential across multiple species. Rodents serve as impor...
BACKGROUND: The genus Bartonella comprises facultative intraerythrocytic bacteria capable of causing long-lasting bacteremia in their natural hosts, with zoonotic potential across multiple species. Rodents serve as important reservoirs for a broad diversity of Bartonella spp., with blood-feeding arthropods, particularly fleas, mediating transmission. Despite their frequent association with humans, the role of edible dormice (Glis glis) and their fleas (Ceratophyllus sciurorum) in Bartonella ecology remains poorly understood. METHODS: We combined long-term ecological and epidemiological data with gut and body microbiome analyses of C. sciurorum to investigate the prevalence, diversity, host specificity, and transmission of Bartonella across flea life stages. The study was conducted over 6 years in a natural dormouse population. Bartonella detection and characterization were performed using multilocus PCR targeting gltA, rpoB, ftsZ, and ITS loci, bacterial cultivation on selective media, and long-read nanopore sequencing. Flea gut microbiomes were assessed in pooled and individual samples to determine the impact of Bartonella infection on microbial community structure. Transmission across flea life stages was evaluated by analyzing larvae, newly emerged adult fleas, and adults directly collected from dormice. RESULTS: We observed a consistently high prevalence of Bartonella in both dormice and their fleas. Four species were identified: B. gliris and B. grahamii subsp. shimonis dominated, each represented by multiple genotypes, whereas B. washoensis and B. bilalgolemii were each detected in a single flea. Moreover, mixed infections of B. gliris and B. grahamii subsp. shimonis were frequent in both dormice and their fleas. Detection of Bartonella DNA in flea larvae and newly emerged adults indicates possible transstadial perpetuation. Flea gut microbiomes were highly variable but consistently dominated by Bartonella in infected fleas. In contrast, uninfected fleas exhibited more diverse communities, often enriched with Staphylococcus and other environmental or host-associated taxa. We, therefore, suggest that flea populations can maintain Bartonella over extended periods, even in the absence of continuous contact with vertebrate hosts. CONCLUSIONS: The dormouse-flea-Bartonella system represents a valuable natural model for studying flea-borne zoonoses. The high prevalence and persistent bacteremia in dormice of different ages indicate their role as suitable reservoirs for at least two Bartonella species. Flea populations are capable of sustaining Bartonella over long periods, and detections in immature life stages suggest continuity of infection across flea generations. Therefore, C. sciurorum appears to play an important role in maintaining B. grahamii subsp. shimonis and B. gliris in nature. Infection is consistently associated with pronounced restructuring of the flea gut microbiome, highlighting the ecological and microbial dimensions of vector-borne pathogen transmission. These findings underscore the importance of considering vector-associated microbial communities when evaluating disease dynamics and zoonotic risk in natural host-vector systems.
Ecology of mosquitoes in Scottish wetlands and confirmation of Culex pipiens biotype molestus and pipiens/molestus hybrids in Scotland.
Kirby G, Brown RE, Lee M … +9 more , Parvy JP, Krabbendam S, Pondeville E, Johnston C, Medlock JM, Vaux AGC, Nelli L, Baldini F, Ferguson HM
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42265788 · Full text
BACKGROUND: The recent spread of mosquito-borne pathogens and their vectors within Europe highlights the impact of climate change on vector-borne disease (VBD) distributions. Mosquito surveillance has been implemented in...
BACKGROUND: The recent spread of mosquito-borne pathogens and their vectors within Europe highlights the impact of climate change on vector-borne disease (VBD) distributions. Mosquito surveillance has been implemented in many European countries to monitor expansion of vector populations and VBDs, but ability to predict disease risk is constrained by geographic data gaps, particularly in northern areas. In the United Kingdom, wetland mosquito surveillance has been conducted extensively in England, with a knowledge deficit for Scotland. Here, we addressed this gap through a nationwide survey of mosquitoes at Scottish wetlands, with aims of (1) confirming the geographic distribution and environmental drivers of mosquito occurrence and abundance, and (2) identifying the presence of vector species of epidemiological concern, including the Culex pipiens molestus biotype, an important vector of emerging VBDs in mainland Europe. METHODS: Monthly mosquito sampling was conducted between June and October 2023 at 22 sites across Scotland comprising six wetland types: coastal saltmarsh, wet grassland, wet woodland, reedbeds, ponds and blanket bog. Adult and larval populations were sampled using Biogents BG-Pro traps and larval dipping respectively. Microclimatic and hydrological variables were recorded at collection sites and used in generalised linear mixed models to identify predictors of mosquito presence and abundance. RESULTS: 1951 adults (17 species/groups) and 860 larvae (six species/groups) were collected from wetlands over 183 and 164 sampling events respectively. Mosquitoes were widely distributed across the Scottish mainland including up to the northern coast, being found at all but one site. Several potential vector species including Culex pipiens s.l. and Anopheles claviger s.l. were common. Amongst the adult Culex pipiens s.l. specimens, approximately 8% were Culex pipiens biotype molestus or hybrid forms. Total mosquito abundance and that of key vector species were positively associated with temperature and rainfall. CONCLUSIONS: We report the widespread distribution of mosquitoes in wetlands throughout Scotland, including potential vector species previously unconfirmed in Scotland. Predicted associations between mosquito abundance, rainfall and temperature indicate that climate change could favour mosquito populations in Scotland. Our results provide the first detailed description of mosquito ecology in Scotland, as required to update assessment of VBD risk under climate change.LE: Graphical abstract is mandatory for publication in this journal. Please provide the graphical abstract.Thank you, this will be uploaded and attached.
Semi-field experiments and sibship analyses reveal larval habitat size preferences and skip oviposition behaviour in female Anopheles arabiensis.
Onen H, Kaindoa EW, Akite P … +4 more , Kayondo JK, Kaddumukasa MA, Akol AM, Tripet F
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42265785 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Since the turn of the century, long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) have played a major role in malaria control. However, the effectiveness of these tools is declin...
BACKGROUND: Since the turn of the century, long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) have played a major role in malaria control. However, the effectiveness of these tools is declining due to the development of insecticide resistance and other factors, creating an urgent need for complementary strategies. Larval source management (LSM), through the application of biological larvicides or the autodissemination of larvicides by ovipositing female mosquitoes, offers alternative avenues to target malaria vectors. Predicting the effectiveness of such approaches requires a detailed understanding of oviposition site selection behaviour in female Anopheles gambiae sensu lato. This study investigated the oviposition strategy of female Anopheles arabiensis in relation to aquatic habitat size under semi-field conditions in south-central Tanzania. METHODS: An array of twelve alternating small (30 cm diameter, 20 L capacity) and large (60 cm diameter, 40 L capacity) artificial larval habitats was established in two compartments of a semi-field system. In quadruplicated experiments, forty wild gravid An. arabiensis females were released into each compartment and allowed to oviposit in their preferred habitats. The resulting third-instar larvae were collected, counted and preserved in ethanol. Larvae from one replicate were subjected to DNA extraction and microsatellite genotyping. Sibship analysis using Bayesian-likelihood methods (COLONY software) was conducted to reconstruct individual female oviposition behaviour. RESULTS: Rather than distributing eggs in proportion to habitat size, An. arabiensis females significantly preferred smaller habitats. Sibship analysis showed that 49.2% of females skip-oviposited across two to four habitats, while others deposited eggs in only one. Skip-ovipositing females laid more eggs overall, but fewer eggs per habitat, and were more likely to alternate between small and large habitats than to use habitats of the same size, consistent with a potential bet-hedging strategy. CONCLUSIONS: Gravid An. arabiensis females exhibited a strong preference for smaller aquatic habitats and frequently engaged in skip-oviposition. These behavioural traits have potential implications for optimising larval-stage vector control tools, particularly those based on autodissemination and attract-and-kill strategies.
Copper overload drives hepatic stellate cell activation via cuproptosis to exacerbate acute liver injury in murine malaria.
Mo X, Chen Q, Zhong R … +16 more , Lin Y, Liu Z, Zhang X, Hou X, Lin H, Zhang M, Liu W, He J, Chen Z, Ye M, Deng Z, Jin X, Liu Z, Song J, Yin H, Huang B
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42260670 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Acute liver injury, a critical complication of severe malaria, was characterized by hepatocyte death and hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation. While HSC activation was a well-established driver of chronic l...
BACKGROUND: Acute liver injury, a critical complication of severe malaria, was characterized by hepatocyte death and hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation. While HSC activation was a well-established driver of chronic liver fibrosis, its specific role and the triggers initiating it during the acute phase of malarial liver injury remain poorly defined. Notably, systemic copper accumulation occurred during Plasmodium infection and can induce cuproptosis, a novel form of copper-dependent mitochondrial cell death. Given the liver's central role in copper metabolism and storage, coupled with the known sensitivity of HSC to copper perturbations, we hypothesized that malaria-induced hepatic copper overload may trigger cuproptosis, which subsequently acted as a key signal promoting HSC activation, thereby exacerbating acute liver injury. METHODS: Using a P. berghei ANKA (Pb)-infected C57BL/6 mouse model, we modulated copper homeostasis in vivo with the copper ionophore disulfiram (DSF) and the copper chelator tetrathiomolybdate (TTM). Parasitemia and liver parasite burden were quantified to assess infection severity. Liver injury was systematically evaluated through histopathology, serum alanine transaminase/aspartate aminotransferase (ALT/AST) level, apoptosis detection (TUNEL), and fibrosis assessment (Sirius Red staining). Systemic inflammatory responses were assessed by measuring serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and interleukin (IL)-10 using Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (ELISA) kits. Hepatic copper levels were measured by rubeanic acid staining and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). To elucidate the underlying mechanisms, we analyzed the expression of key cuproptosis markers (FDX1, DLAT, and DLST) and hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation markers (alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and Collagen I) using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. Furthermore, the mRNA levels of profibrotic/antifibrotic mediators in liver tissue were measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay. Finally, to validate the mechanistic link between copper dysregulation and HSC activation, we conducted in vitro studies using Pb-infected red blood cells (iRBCs)-stimulated HSC cell line (HSCT6) treated with DSF-CuCl or TTM-CuCl complexes. RESULTS: Pb infection triggered progressive hepatic copper accumulation and concomitant upregulation of key cuproptosis markers (FDX1, DLAT, and DLST), which paralleled worsening liver histopathology, enhanced HSC activation (α-SMA/Collagen I↑), and increased collagen deposition (fibrosis). Critically, pharmacological elevation of copper levels using DSF exacerbated this pathological cascade: it amplified copper overload, further increased key cuproptosis marker expression (FDX1/DLAT/DLST↑), elevated parasitemia and liver parasite burden, and intensified HSC activation (α-SMA/Collagen I↑), fibrosis, and liver pathology. Strikingly, DSF treatment significantly increased the proportion of activated (α-SMA) HSCs co-expressing FDX1, DLAT, or DLST, and shifted the cytokine balance toward profibrosis (TGF-β/PDGF↑) while suppressing antifibrotic mediators (IFN-γ/HGF↓). In parallel, DSF treatment increased serum TNF-α and IFN-γ levels while decreasing IL-10. Conversely, copper chelation with TTM effectively reversed these effects: it reduced hepatic copper, suppressed key cuproptosis marker expression and the prevalence of co-labeled HSC, alleviated HSC activation and fibrosis, and consequently improved liver function. This central mechanistic link between copper dysregulation and HSC activation was directly validated in vitro: in iRBC-stimulated HSCT6, DSF-CuCl complexes potentiated the upregulation of cuproptosis markers (FDX1, DLAT, and DLST), HSC activation markers (α-SMA and Collagen I), and profibrotic cytokines (TGF-β and PDGF) while inhibiting antifibrotic cytokines (IFN-γ and HGF), whereas TTM-CuCl treatment consistently attenuated these iRBC-induced changes. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate that malaria-induced hepatic copper overload triggers cuproptosis, which in turn directly activates HSC, thereby exacerbating acute liver injury. Pharmacological intervention with the copper chelator TTM effectively suppressed this pathogenic cascade and mitigated liver damage. Consequently, targeting copper-induced cuproptosis represents a novel therapeutic strategy for combating severe malaria-associated acute liver injury.
Acaricidal efficacy and biochemical effects of Cananga odorata essential oil and three selected compounds against Haemaphysalis doenitzi (Acari: Ixodidae).
Zhang S, Gao Z, Yang B … +7 more , Liu X, Lu C, Feng H, Zhu P, Liang Z, Ghonaim AH, Yang X
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42260659 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Ticks are major ectoparasites that significantly impact livestock productivity worldwide. With the growing resistance to synthetic acaricides and increasing concerns about environmental and human safety, iden...
BACKGROUND: Ticks are major ectoparasites that significantly impact livestock productivity worldwide. With the growing resistance to synthetic acaricides and increasing concerns about environmental and human safety, identifying effective and ecofriendly alternatives has become a pressing need. This study evaluated the fumigant and contact toxicities of ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) essential oil (EO) and three plant-derived compounds, lilial, cinene, and α-amylcinnamaldehyde, against Haemaphysalis doenitzi and explored their underlying mechanisms of action. METHODS: The acaricidal potential of C. odorata EO, lilial, cinene, and α-amylcinnamaldehyde against H. doenitzi was evaluated through in vitro (fumigation and immersion tests) and subsequent biochemical effects experiments. Surviving adult ticks treated with the semi-lethal concentration (LC) were homogenized to detect GST, Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, AchE, and CarE activities, and HDABCE1, HD-GSTa, and HDCYP450a transcripts were quantified via reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Homology models of the three proteins were built and docked with lilial, cinene, and α-amylcinnamaldehyde to predict binding sites and affinities. RESULTS: In the fumigation assay, C. odorata EO and lilial showed the highest activity with the lowest LC value (27.904 and 27.173 µg/mL, respectively), outperforming cinene and α-amylcinnamaldehyde. In the immersion test, all substances exhibited significant acaricidal activity, with α-amylcinnamaldehyde achieving 100% mortality in both nymphs and adults at 50 mg/mL after 24 h. α-Amylcinnamaldehyde LC was 4.4 mg/mL for nymphs and 10.8 mg/mL for adults. Enzyme assays indicated that lilial and C. odorata EO significantly inhibited GST and AchE, while cinene and α-amylcinnamaldehyde primarily induced CarE activity. Gene expression analysis further revealed that cinene and C. odorata EO significantly upregulated HD-GSTa and HD-CYP450ais>; lilial and C. odorata EO strongly elevated HDABCE1, and α-amylcinnamaldehyde markedly induced HD-CYP450ais>. Molecular docking supported these findings, showing that each compound interacts with HD-GSTa, HD-CYP450a, and HD-ABCE1 proteins through distinct binding modes, consistent with their differential mechanisms of action. CONCLUSIONS: Cananga odorata EO, cinene, lilial, and α-amylcinnamaldehyde potently exhibit acaricidal activity via distinct but complementary disruption of detox enzymes, neurotransmission, and efflux pumps, offering a basis for novel plant-derived acaricides.
Artificial visual environments to enhance mating success in colonised Anopheles funestus.
Mrosso PC, Burke AM, Ngowo HS … +4 more , Riddin MA, Okumu FO, Coetzee BWT, Koekemoer LL
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42260643 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Establishing and maintaining laboratory colonies of the malaria vector, Anopheles funestus using newly collected material has proven challenging, in part because of their low propensity to mate in captivity....
BACKGROUND: Establishing and maintaining laboratory colonies of the malaria vector, Anopheles funestus using newly collected material has proven challenging, in part because of their low propensity to mate in captivity. In this study we assessed how cage conditions influence the mating success of two An. funestus strains originating from different geographic areas, Angola (FANG) and Mozambique (FUMOZ). METHODS: The visual environment in adult mosquito-rearing cages was manipulated either by covering the cages in different planes with black opaque cloth (referred to as black horizons) or by placing black visual markers at various positions inside the cages. Mating success was assessed by dissecting the spermathecae capsule of the females after the standard 10-day mating period. RESULTS: Insemination rates were consistently higher in the An. funestus FANG strain than in the FUMOZ strain in both the black horizon (odds ratio [OR] 0.31, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.21-0.44, p < 0.001) and visual marker experiments (OR 0.12, 95% CI 0.08-0.19, p < 0.001). The inclusion of black horizons and visual markers significantly increased insemination in both strains (p < 0.001). However, strain-specific responses were evident: FANG showed significantly greater insemination rates in the side-covered cages (OR 2.06, 95% CI 1.41-3.01, p < 0.001), whereas FUMOZ insemination rates declined under the same condition (OR 0.41, 95% CI 0.24-0.70, p < 0.001). The insemination rate of the FUMOZ strain was significantly higher in top-covered cages (OR 0.59, 95% CI 0.38-0.95, p = 0.03) and when a visual marker was placed at the bottom of cage (OR 2.18, 95% CI 1.25-3.81, p = 0.006), while FANG insemination rates were unaffected by marker position. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that manipulating the visual environment within adult mosquito-rearing cages can significantly enhance mating success in An. funestus, although the effectiveness of specific visual cues varies between strains. While both FANG and FUMOZ responded positively to visual enhancements, their differing responses to the same conditions underscore the importance of tailoring rearing protocols as mating stimuli at their original location may be associated with specific environmental features. These findings offer preliminary guidance for improving the colonisation and maintenance of An. funestus in laboratory settings, while highlighting the need for further research to improve mating success for this species.
Gene-edited live-attenuated vaccines against Toxoplasma gondii: recent advances and future frontiers.
Sang X, Zhang H, Zhang Y … +6 more , Jin Y, Sun F, Feng Y, Al-Olayan E, Yang N, El-Ashram S
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42252477 · Full text
Toxoplasma gondii is an infectious disease that infects nearly one third of the world's population and endangers the health of immunocompromised people, pregnant women, and livestock. There are no existing drugs able to...
Toxoplasma gondii is an infectious disease that infects nearly one third of the world's population and endangers the health of immunocompromised people, pregnant women, and livestock. There are no existing drugs able to treat the infection and prevent tissue cysts from developing. Therefore, the creation of a safe vaccine should be considered as a matter of great importance. While many of the vaccines have not proven successful in the past, recently created live-attenuated vaccines (LAVs) using CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology were able to outperform the previous ones. The current review aims to highlight the recent progress in genetically engineered LAVs against T. gondii. In particular, the knockout strains affecting metabolic genes (ompdc, uprt, and adsl), virulence genes (rop18), and host-parasite interactions (gra5, gra72, had2a, and cdpk3) will be mentioned. LAVs described above demonstrate high attenuating effects and ability to protect mice by inducing immunity on the basis of specific IgG (IgG2a), IFN-γ, IL-12, and CD4, CD8 T cells. Furthermore, vaccination provides protection from a lethal infection caused by types I, II, and Chinese 1 strains of T. gondii as well as preventing development of tissue cysts in chronic infection. RHΔompdcΔuprt is an example of an LAV that can be used to reduce oocyst shedding in cats and promote the One Health concept. In general terms, genetically engineered LAVs can effectively deal with toxoplasmosis infection with better attenuation immunogenicity balance than other vaccines. Nonetheless, several problems need consideration.
Zoonotic malaria in Southeast Asia's changing landscapes: vector complexity, challenges, and future strategies.
Jeyaprakasam NK, Zulhaimi AH, Lau KW … +7 more , Pramasivan S, Phang WK, Ponlawat A, Samung Y, Zhong D, Idris ZM, Sattabongkot J
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42251362 · Full text
Zoonotic malaria, particularly Plasmodium knowlesi, has emerged as a growing public health concern across Southeast Asia, with increasing incidence reported in multiple countries. The recent detection of additional zoono...
Zoonotic malaria, particularly Plasmodium knowlesi, has emerged as a growing public health concern across Southeast Asia, with increasing incidence reported in multiple countries. The recent detection of additional zoonotic Plasmodium species further complicates the epidemiological landscape, underscoring the expanding interface among humans, wildlife reservoirs, and mosquito vectors. Despite this trend, progress towards effective control and elimination remains limited, largely due to substantial gaps in entomological knowledge across many endemic regions. Currently, only a narrow range of vector control approaches is available, and these strategies are often ill-suited to the ecological and behavioural characteristics of zoonotic malaria transmission. A major challenge lies in the complexity of vector species assemblages in Southeast Asia. Some of the vectors belong to species complexes with high morphological similarity, making accurate taxonomic identification difficult. Misidentification of mosquito species can distort assessments of vector competence, biting behaviour, and ecological niche, leading to inaccurate inferences about transmission dynamics and potentially resulting in ineffective surveillance and misdirected vector control interventions. Compounding this issue are rapid landscape changes driven by deforestation, agricultural expansion, and habitat fragmentation, which alter mosquito bionomics. Growing evidence suggests that such environmental disturbances may promote outdoor and forest-associated biting, enhance vector adaptability, and shift transmission risk toward human settlements. Thus, this review synthesises current knowledge on the ecological, behavioural, and taxonomic complexities of zoonotic malaria vectors within a rapidly changing landscape. By critically examining challenges in vector identification, surveillance, and control, we highlight key gaps that impede effective intervention. Finally, we discuss pathways forward, emphasising the need for integrated, context-specific, and One Health-oriented strategies to address the unique challenges posed by zoonotic malaria transmission in Southeast Asia.
Multi-epitope mRNA vaccine and protein vaccine protect mice against Toxoplasma gondii.
Cui Y, Qu H, Zhou C … +4 more , Liang Z, Han B, Zhou H, Cong H
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42249505 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite, infects almost one-third of the world's population and all warm-blooded animals, posing a substantial threat to public health. Accordingly, the...
BACKGROUND: Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite, infects almost one-third of the world's population and all warm-blooded animals, posing a substantial threat to public health. Accordingly, the development of effective vaccines against T. gondii has become an urgent priority. In this study, we constructed a multi-epitope chimeric antigen T-SGR targeting three key protective antigens of T. gondii (SAG1, GRA7, and ROP16), and developed both a messenger RNA (mRNA) lipid nanoparticle (LNP) vaccine and a recombinant protein vaccine based on T-SGR. The immunogenicity and protective effects were further evaluated in C57BL/6 mice. METHODS: The T-SGR mRNA-LNP vaccine was prepared via in vitro transcription followed by LNP encapsulation, while the T-SGR protein vaccine was obtained via prokaryotic expression and purification. Mice were administered a two-dose immunization regimen. Serum levels of specific IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a antibodies and cytokine levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). T lymphocyte subsets and lymphocyte proliferation were assessed by flow cytometry and Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. Protective efficacy was evaluated by monitoring survival rates after challenge with highly virulent T. gondii RH strain tachyzoites and moderately virulent ME49 strain tachyzoites. RESULTS: Both T-SGR mRNA and protein vaccines induced robust humoral and cellular immune responses in mice. Notably, the IgG antibody titer induced by the mRNA-LNP vaccine was significantly higher than that of the protein vaccine (P < 0.05). Both vaccines drove a Th1-biased immune response, as evidenced by markedly higher IgG2a levels relative to IgG1. Compared with the phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) control group, both vaccine groups significantly promoted splenocyte proliferation (P < 0.05). The mRNA vaccine induced significantly higher secretion of IFN-γ, IL-10, IL-12, and IL-2 than the protein vaccine. Both vaccines conferred significant protection against T. gondii infection and prolonged mouse survival. Strikingly, the T-SGR mRNA-LNP vaccine provided 100% protection against the T. gondii ME49 strain, outperforming the recombinant protein vaccine. CONCLUSIONS: We successfully developed a multi-epitope T-SGR mRNA-LNP vaccine and a recombinant protein vaccine against T. gondii. The T-SGR mRNA-LNP vaccine elicited stronger humoral and cellular immune responses and conferred superior protective efficacy, representing a promising candidate vaccine against toxoplasmosis.
Sublethal effects of insecticides on the reproduction traits of insecticide-resistant Anopheles gambiae sensu lato mosquitoes from Tiassalé, Côte d'Ivoire.
Kouame KR, Ouattara AF, Gleave K … +6 more , Fodjo BK, ZahouliZahouli JB, Kouame RMA, Small GJ, Snetselaar J, Koudou BG
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42249498 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Although exposure of Anopheles mosquitoes to insecticide-treated vector control tools is not always lethal, the sublethal effects of these insecticides on their life-history traits remain poorly explored. The...
BACKGROUND: Although exposure of Anopheles mosquitoes to insecticide-treated vector control tools is not always lethal, the sublethal effects of these insecticides on their life-history traits remain poorly explored. Therefore, this study examined the impact of sublethal exposure to broflanilide, chlorfenapyr and deltamethrin on longevity; blood meal acceptance; viable egg production; and the proportion of females with viable eggs in insecticide-resistant An. gambiae s.l. populations from Tiassalé, Côte d'Ivoire. METHODS: The sublethal effects of broflanilide, chlorfenapyr and deltamethrin were assessed on 3-5-day-old adult female An. gambie s.l. from the field collected Tiassalé strain (F), using the insecticide-susceptible Kisumu strain as reference, following standardized World Health Organization (WHO) bottle bioassay procedures. For each insecticide, the lethal dose causing 20% mortality (LD) was determined through dose-response analysis and then subsequently applied in treated bottles. Post-exposure, longevity, blood-feeding success, egg viability and the proportion of ovipositing females were recorded. Comparisons were made between the control and LD treatment groups. RESULTS: Sublethal exposures produced distinct effects depending on both the mosquito strain and the insecticide type. Broflanilide significantly reduced longevity in the Tiassalé population (P < 0.0001), whereas chlorfenapyr and deltamethrin had stronger effects on the Kisumu strain. Deltamethrin exposure notably impaired blood-feeding behaviour, reducing feeding success by 25.5% in Kisumu and 19.5% in Tiassalé. Reproductive parameters were also affected: both chlorfenapyr and broflanilide reduced viable egg production and the proportion of females producing viable eggs in both strains. In contrast, deltamethrin showed a more limited impact on reproduction. In the Tiassalé strain, the proportion of females producing viable eggs dropped to 41.5% following chlorfenapyr exposure, compared with 65.7% in unexposed individuals. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that sublethal doses of insecticides can adversely affect reproductive success and blood-feeding behaviour in both susceptible and resistant Anopheles mosquitoes, potentially reducing their vectorial capacity. This study underscores the need to systematically account for sublethal effects when evaluating insecticides in vector control programs, particularly in settings where resistance is widespread among malaria vectors.
Long-term monitoring of sand fly populations: temporal responses to land-use change and climatic variability.
Waitz Y, Paz S, Elbaz S … +9 more , Diaz D, Ben-Avi I, Studentsky L, Hacklai E, Reicher S, Drori R, Davidovich-Cohen M, Orshan L, Kirstein OD
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42249496 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Phlebotomine sand flies are the sole vector of leishmaniasis and other sand fly-borne diseases, and their populations are shaped by climate and human-driven environmental change. While warming is expected to...
BACKGROUND: Phlebotomine sand flies are the sole vector of leishmaniasis and other sand fly-borne diseases, and their populations are shaped by climate and human-driven environmental change. While warming is expected to expand sand fly ranges, the joint effects of long-term climatic variability and land-use change on population dynamics remain poorly understood, largely owing to limited long-term monitoring. METHODS: We analyzed an 18-year dataset (2005-2021) from a site in semi-arid Ma'ale Adumim, Israel, using CO-baited traps. Land-cover change was quantified using remote sensing, focusing on the establishment of a managed urban park near the site. Climatic variables from the Israel Meteorological Service and ERA5 were related to interannual variation in abundance and seasonal phenology characters (median seasonal timing and peak timing). RESULTS: A marked land-cover transformation associated with an irrigated park was identified, increasing dry-season vegetation. Sand fly species showed contrasting long-term trends and phase-dependent responses: Phlebotomus sergenti and P. papatasi were most abundant immediately after landscape modification and declined later, whereas P. tobbi and P. syriacus increased after park establishment. Seasonal activity was strongly species-specific with limited interspecific synchrony. Climatic variability explained little interannual variation overall; only P. tobbi maximum abundance and timing of within-season population increase were associated with the timing of thermal onset. CONCLUSIONS: Anthropogenic land-use change dominated long-term sand fly population dynamics, often exceeding climatic effects, and altered habitat suitability in species-specific, phase-dependent ways. Integrating land management and spatial planning into prevention strategies is critical for reducing leishmaniasis risk in human-modified landscapes.
Closing the gap on gapeworm: experimental infection of Mammomonogamus ierei in domestic cats.
Iani AD, Mihalca AD, Ketzis JK
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42249477 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Mammomonogamus ierei is a nasal nematode of domestic cats, for which the life cycle and route of infection have remained unknown. Experimental oral infections have historically failed, leading to speculation...
BACKGROUND: Mammomonogamus ierei is a nasal nematode of domestic cats, for which the life cycle and route of infection have remained unknown. Experimental oral infections have historically failed, leading to speculation regarding the involvement of an intermediate host and uncertainty about transmission pathways. The aim of this study was to determine the route of infection of M. ierei in domestic cats. METHODS: Twenty kittens (6-12 weeks old) were exposed to infective third-stage larvae (L3) via six routes: per os (n = 3), oral mucosa (n = 3), nasal mucosa (n = 3), subcutaneous (n = 3), percutaneous (abdominal region) (n = 2), external auditory canal (n = 2), and an unexposed control group (n = 4). Kittens were randomized across litters to minimize litter-associated effects and monitored using serial fecal examinations for 70 days post-inoculation to assess establishment of infection and egg shedding. RESULTS: Motile L3 developed within 9 days in culture and exhibited morphometric characteristics consistent with previous descriptions. Two of 20 kittens developed patent M. ierei infections, first shedding eggs 48-51 days post-inoculation. Both infected animals belonged to the subcutaneous inoculation group, whereas no infections resulted from other inoculation routes. Mild, transient respiratory signs were observed in some kittens, including one prior to patency. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate, for the first time, a viable route of infection for M. ierei and provide the first experimental evidence of route of transmission for any species within the genus Mammomonogamus. The results suggest a direct life cycle, as infection was established in the absence of an intermediate host, but do not preclude the occurrence of paratenic hosts. Infection via subcutaneous exposure was successfully achieved; however, its relevance under natural conditions remains to be confirmed. This study advances the current understanding of Mammomonogamus biology and may have implications for parasite control and for transmission models of zoonotic species such as Mammomonogamus laryngeus.
A comparative assessment of mosquito trapping methods for vector surveillance in Scotland.
Lee M, Kirby G, Brown RE … +9 more , McCallum A, Parvy JP, Krabbendam S, Pondeville E, Medlock JM, Vaux AGC, Nelli L, Baldini F, Ferguson HM
Parasit Vectors · 2026 Jun · PMID 42249475 · Full text
BACKGROUND: While mosquito vector-borne disease (VBD) risk remains low in Northern Europe, surveillance is needed to monitor potential vector species. However, most mosquito trapping methods have been evaluated only in a...
BACKGROUND: While mosquito vector-borne disease (VBD) risk remains low in Northern Europe, surveillance is needed to monitor potential vector species. However, most mosquito trapping methods have been evaluated only in areas of high mosquito density, with limited knowledge of their sensitivity in low-abundance areas. Here, we assessed the relative performance of four commercially available traps in an urban setting in Scotland, where mosquito density is low. METHODS: Two trap evaluation experiments were conducted in an urban marsh in Glasgow City during August 2023. In experiment 1, the Biogents BG-Pro (BGP), Biogents BG-Sentinel (BGS), and CDC miniature light traps (LT) were compared over 15 days using a 3 × 3 Latin square design. A subsequent experiment incorporated the Mosquito Magnet (MM) trap to compare it with the other three traps over 12 days using a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Alongside these experiments, two CDC gravid traps (GT) were trialled across 24 days to target blood-fed and gravid mosquitoes. Mosquitoes were morphologically identified to species and species-group level, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays were used to identify Culex pipiens s.l. biotypes. RESULTS: Over the 96 trapping events, 150 mosquitoes were collected from eight species. Mosquito abundance was generally low (mean abundance: 1.61 per day ± 1.89). The most abundant species collected was Anopheles claviger (n = 63), followed by Culiseta morsitans (n = 28). In Experiment 1, there was no significant difference in mean mosquito abundance among the BGS, BGP, and the LT. In Experiment 2, there was a significant positive association between the MM and daily mosquito abundance. The MM also collected more species than the other trap types (6 compared to 1-4 species). Gravid traps collected 19 mosquitoes representing three species, of which 21% were gravid or blood-fed. CONCLUSIONS: While the MM caught more mosquitoes than other methods, this was likely due to its more consistent and higher-volume CO output. However, important potential vector groups (Culex) were present only in the BGS, BGP, and LT. No single method consistently captured all species, indicating that a combination of methods may be necessary for comprehensive vector surveillance in Scotland.
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