Int J Sports Med [JOURNAL]
Sun
200 papers
Don't Sweat the Swelling: Exercise Volume's Transient Effects in Trained Men.
Alvarez M, Enes A, Wadhi T … +11 more , Barakat CB, Rauch J, Barsuhn A, Aube D, Miller N, Chessman N, Bou-Sliman A, Andersen JC, Souza-Junior TP, Ugrinowitsch C, De Souza EO
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jul · PMID 41565215 · Publisher ↗
This study investigated the effects of different session volumes on perceptual, performance, and morphological changes and their transient responses following the experimental sessions. Thirteen trained men (training exp...
This study investigated the effects of different session volumes on perceptual, performance, and morphological changes and their transient responses following the experimental sessions. Thirteen trained men (training experience: 5.1±1.3 y; 10 repetition-maximum squat: 131±23 kg) completed three counterbalanced experimental sessions consisting of 7, 14, or 21 total sets per session targeting the lower body. A 10 repetition-maximum test was used as a performance marker. Anterior thigh muscle thickness and echo-intensity were assessed at baseline, immediately after the session, 24, 48, and 72 hours after experimental sessions. Perceived recovery status was assessed at baseline, 24, 48, and 72 hours after experimental sessions. Rating of perceived exertion was recorded post-session only. The 14- and 21-SETS conditions resulted in greater volume load (<0.05). Perceived recovery status and rating of perceived exertion were significantly affected by training volume (<0.05), particularly in the 21-SETS condition, which induced higher rating of perceived exertion and lower perceived recovery status than the other conditions. No conditions or condition-by-time effects were observed for muscle thickness, echo-intensity, or 10 repetition-maximum-volume load (>0.05). Despite distinct perceptual and volume load differences, no sustained muscle swelling or evidence of edema was observed, as muscle thickness and echo-intensity measurements returned to baseline within 24 hours post-session across all conditions.
Hamstring Training and Football Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.
Riego-Ruiz A, Martínez-García D, Chirosa-Ríos I … +3 more , Chirosa-Ríos L, Contreras-Díaz G, Jerez-Mayorga D
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Feb · PMID 41525792 · Publisher ↗
The aim of this review was to evaluate the impact of strength training on hamstring muscle strength and physical performance in football players. A systematic review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items...
The aim of this review was to evaluate the impact of strength training on hamstring muscle strength and physical performance in football players. A systematic review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, and the protocol was registered in PROSPERO. A literature search was performed using four electronic databases, such as Web of Science, SCOPUS, SportDiscuss, and PubMed. Randomized controlled trials conducted with football players aged 15 years or older were included. The studies were grouped according to moderating variables such as training protocol and physical performance outcomes. A total of 20 studies met the inclusion criteria for this review, with 10 studies included in the meta-analysis. Strength training programs demonstrated moderate to large effects on both concentric and eccentric strength of the hamstrings and quadriceps, as well as on physical performance measures such as jumping and sprinting. Eccentric overload training produced the most significant benefits in sprint and jump performance. Strength training, particularly eccentric training, significantly improves both the hamstring muscle strength and the physical performance in male football players aged 15 years and older, highlighting its importance for injury prevention and sport performance enhancement. However, additional research is needed to evaluate whether similar benefits can be observed in female players and younger age groups.
Sport Participation Type and Cognitive Function in Collegiate Student-Athletes.
Harper ZO, Anderson MN, Putukian M … +6 more , Bodt B, Pasquina PF, McCrea M, McAllister TW, Broglio SP, Buckley TA
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jun · PMID 41525791 · Publisher ↗
Considerable concerns have been raised regarding potential neurocognitive deficits associated with participation in contact and collision sports. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of sport-type participa...
Considerable concerns have been raised regarding potential neurocognitive deficits associated with participation in contact and collision sports. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of sport-type participation on cognitive performance during the trail making test. We assessed 543 student-athletes from two universities, classified as collision, contact, or non-contact sport athletes, who performed the trail making test. Three analyses of covariance compared performance with common confounders as covariates. There was no difference between trail making test-A (=0.381) and trail making test-B ( =0.063) times. There was a significant main effect for trail making test difference performance (non-contact: 17.3+9.1 s, contact: 20.1+10.5 s, and collision: 24.3+11.8 s; =6.278, =0.002, and =0.020). There was a significant post-hoc difference only between the contact/collision and non-contact groups (=0.001 and =0.66). Collision sport athletes exhibited worse trail making test difference performance, warranting ongoing cognitive assessments with longitudinal designs. However, collision sport athlete's performance was better than general college students supporting the positive benefits of physical activity on cognitive performance.
Aerobic Threshold Evaluation Using a Sweat Lactate Sensor in Healthy Women.
Sawada T, Okawara H, Narushima S … +6 more , Minami K, Shiratori A, Katsumata Y, Nakamura M, Nagura T, Nakashima D
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jun · PMID 41525782 · Publisher ↗
The use of a sweat lactate sensor to evaluate the aerobic threshold has not been fully validated in women with low sweat rates. This study aimed to validate aerobic threshold assessment using a sweat lactate sensor in he...
The use of a sweat lactate sensor to evaluate the aerobic threshold has not been fully validated in women with low sweat rates. This study aimed to validate aerobic threshold assessment using a sweat lactate sensor in healthy women. Sixteen healthy women who underwent exercise tests using respiratory gas analysis were included. Sweat lactate levels were monitored using a wearable lactate sensor, and the sweat rate was measured using a ventilated capsule perspiration meter. A correlation analysis between the sweat lactate threshold and the ventilatory threshold was performed. The degree of discrepancy between the sweat lactate threshold and the ventilatory threshold was also examined based on sweating dynamics. In all cases, the sweat lactate threshold was detected using a sweat lactate sensor. Although a significant correlation was observed between the sweat lactate threshold and the ventilatory threshold ( =0.769), the sweat lactate threshold was significantly delayed compared with the ventilatory threshold, and the difference in the degree of discrepancy between the sweat lactate threshold and the ventilatory threshold increased with increasing thresholds. The onset of sweating was a significant predictor of the discrepancy between the sweat lactate threshold and the ventilatory threshold (=0.873). Thus, in healthy women, the aerobic threshold assessment using the sweat lactate sensor was feasible. This study demonstrated that late-onset sweating was an important factor in delayed sweat lactate threshold relative to the ventilatory threshold.
Positional and Temporal Intermittency in Football: A Metabolic Model Approach.
Callau-Arbo N, Altarriba-Bartes A, Alonso-Callejo A … +3 more , Pajon D, Felipe JL, Lozano D
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jun · PMID 41519122 · Publisher ↗
This study examined positional differences in the intermittent nature of efforts during professional football matches and compared two analytical models: one using a fixed metabolic power threshold (Pmet20) and another b...
This study examined positional differences in the intermittent nature of efforts during professional football matches and compared two analytical models: one using a fixed metabolic power threshold (Pmet20) and another based on the relationship between oxygen consumption and metabolic power (VO-Pmet). Data were collected from 24 First Division players in Cyprus across 50 matches during the 2022-2023 season using GPS technology (WIMU Pro System). High and low metabolic load efforts were analyzed. Results showed significant positional differences in both the duration and intensity of high metabolic load efforts and low metabolic load efforts. Compared to the Pmet20 model, the VO-Pmet method identified approximately twice longer high metabolic load effort durations (≈4.1 vs. 2.1 s) and about 70-150% more detected efforts across positions, together with shorter recovery intervals. A notable decline in low metabolic load effort intensity between halves was linked to reduced performance. These findings highlight the dynamic interplay between aerobic and anaerobic systems in football and emphasize the need for position-specific training. Practical applications include designing training programs that reflect the unique intermittent demands of each position, focusing on both high-intensity efforts and recovery. This study provides a robust framework for understanding the football's intermittent nature and offers actionable strategies to enhance player performance through tailored conditioning.
Estimation of Critical Power and Associated Physiological Markers from a Single Cardiopulmonary Exercise Test in Trained Master Cyclists.
Galán-Rioja MÁ, González-Mohíno F, Turner AP … +1 more , González Ravé JM
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jun · PMID 41435848 · Publisher ↗
This study aimed to assess the level of agreement between internal (i.e., oxygen uptake, heart rate, or ratings of perceived exertion) and external load markers (power output) at critical power intensity, compared to the...
This study aimed to assess the level of agreement between internal (i.e., oxygen uptake, heart rate, or ratings of perceived exertion) and external load markers (power output) at critical power intensity, compared to the first ventilatory threshold, respiratory compensation point, and maximum oxygen uptake derived from the cardiopulmonary exercise test, and estimate critical power from values derived from the cardiopulmonary exercise test in trained cyclists. Fourteen (13 males and 1 female) road master cyclists completed a cardiopulmonary exercise test to determine the first ventilatory threshold, respiratory compensation point, and maximum oxygen uptake. On a subsequent day, they completed three maximal time-trial tests to estimate critical power and W'. Associated physiological and perceptual values at critical power were estimated from linear regressions applied to the cardiopulmonary exercise test results. Internal and external markers significantly (<0.05) increased from the first ventilatory threshold to the respiratory compensation point and then maximum oxygen uptake. There were no significant differences between internal and external markers at the respiratory compensation point vs. critical power with strong correlations between responses. However, there was a mean bias for responses at respiratory compensation point markers to overestimate some responses at critical power (power output and oxygen uptake by ~8%). This study shows that critical power can be estimated from a single cardiopulmonary exercise test. While the respiratory compensation point is not a reliable critical power substitute, predictive equations improve its estimation for more precise prescriptions in trained cyclists.
Injury Patterns in an Elite Men's Futsal Club: A Nine-Season Cohort Study.
Miñarro C, de Pablo Marquez B, Zumeta-Olaskoaga L … +3 more , Sugimoto D, Rodas G, Casals M
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jun · PMID 41435847 · Publisher ↗
Futsal is a high-intensity sport with a significant risk of injury; however, current literature lacks consensus on the most prevalent injury patterns in this discipline. This study aims to describe the types and frequenc...
Futsal is a high-intensity sport with a significant risk of injury; however, current literature lacks consensus on the most prevalent injury patterns in this discipline. This study aims to describe the types and frequencies of injuries sustained by elite futsal players. We conducted an observational, retrospective analysis of injuries recorded over nine consecutive seasons within a single club, encompassing six different competitive categories. A total of 214 male athletes were monitored, representing 671 player-seasons, during which 1,043 injuries were documented. Muscle-tendon injuries of the thigh were the most frequently reported, followed by ligament injuries of the knee and ankle. Among muscle-tendon injuries, biceps femoris was the most injured muscle, while anterior cruciate ligament ruptures were the injuries associated with a higher time-loss. These findings highlight the specific anatomical regions most vulnerable to injury in elite futsal and underscore the need for targeted prevention strategies. By providing a detailed injury profile across multiple competitive levels, this study provides a starting point for the development of evidence-based injury prevention and rehabilitation programs.
How Much of HERStory is in the HIStory of the International Journal of Sports Medicine?
Jette S, Hagberg J
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jun · PMID 41412172 · Publisher ↗
Every paper in the from 1980 to 2024 (=5,176) was reviewed to quantify female and male research participants and authors. Female individuals accounted for 23% of participants. One contributor to this under-representatio...
Every paper in the from 1980 to 2024 (=5,176) was reviewed to quantify female and male research participants and authors. Female individuals accounted for 23% of participants. One contributor to this under-representation is that the number of studies that include male participants is 3,847 versus 1,826 studies with female participants. Also, 417 studies included only female participants versus 2,436 studies including only male participants. Furthermore, female authors accounted for 18% of the total authors over the history of the (1,947 female and 8,698 male authors). There were also 859 papers with female first/last authors versus 1,212 papers with male first/last authors. Thus, this journal has substantially less of HERstory than HIStory, in terms of research participants and manuscript authors. Using these data, we also 'forecast' when equal representation might be achieved (when the number of female and male authors/participants at that time would be equal in a given year). The predicted timelines to achieve this were: ~800 years for female research participants, ~ 46 years for female participant studies, ~ 155 years for female only participant studies, ~22 years for female and male authors, and ~ 13 years for female and male first/last authors.
Ischemic Preconditioning Slightly Enhances Jiu Jitsu Performance.
Santos IA, da Silva BVC, de Oliveira DCX … +3 more , da Cruz GGC, Puggina EF, Mota GR
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Apr · PMID 41386274 · Publisher ↗
This study aimed to determine whether acute ischemic preconditioning enhances performance in the Jiu-Jitsu anaerobic performance test and its influence on physiological responses in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu fighters. Seventee...
This study aimed to determine whether acute ischemic preconditioning enhances performance in the Jiu-Jitsu anaerobic performance test and its influence on physiological responses in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu fighters. Seventeen male fighters completed two randomized crossover sessions (ischemic preconditioning and placebo). The ischemic preconditioning protocol consisted of three cycles of 5-minute occlusion at 220 mm Hg followed by 5-minute reperfusion. Performance was assessed using the Jiu-Jitsu anaerobic performance test, while physiological markers included the heart rate, blood lactate, muscle oxygenation, countermovement jump, rating of perceived exertion, and session rating of perceived exertion. Ischemic preconditioning increased total repetitions performed in the Jiu-Jitsu anaerobic performance test (=0.003) and enhanced muscle oxygenation (<0.0001). Under the placebo condition, the pre-countermovement jump was higher than the post-countermovement jump (=0.006). However, under the ischemic preconditioning condition, no significant difference was observed between pre- and post-countermovement jump (=0.99). No significant differences were observed for heart rate or blood lactate (>0.05). Additionally, ischemic preconditioning reduced the session rating of perceived exertion compared to the placebo (=0.04), suggesting a lower session rating of perceived exertion. We concluded that acute ischemic preconditioning induces small but significant improvements in performance and muscle oxygenation, while reducing fatigue and session rating of perceived exertion in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu athletes, supporting its use as an ergogenic aid in training.
Muscle-to-Bone Ratio in Collegiate Female Athletes in Low and High Impact Sports.
Dengel DR, Juckett WT, Stanforth PR … +1 more , Evanoff N
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Mar · PMID 41386273 · Publisher ↗
The purpose of the present study was to compare the muscle-to-bone ratio in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I female athletes (=387) to those in age-matched controls (=209). In addition, we examined the...
The purpose of the present study was to compare the muscle-to-bone ratio in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I female athletes (=387) to those in age-matched controls (=209). In addition, we examined the muscle-to-bone ratio in low and high impact sports. Total and regional lean soft tissue, fat mass, and bone mineral content were determined by dual X-ray absorptiometry. The muscle-to-bone ratio was calculated by dividing lean soft tissue by bone mineral content. Athletes were categorized by sports: basketball (=66), cross-country (=49), diving (=17), soccer (=69), softball (=71), swimming (=93), and volleyball (=22). There were significant differences between controls and athletes for total lean soft tissue, fat mass, and bone mineral content. When the total muscle-to-bone ratio in athletes was compared to that in controls, there were no significant differences; however, there were significant differences in the regional muscle-to-bone ratio. Low impact sports (i.e., diving and swimming) had significantly higher total and regional muscle-to-bone ratios than high impact sports (i.e., cross-country, basketball, volleyball, softball, and soccer). The differences identified between sports in total and regional muscle-to-bone ratios may be a result of sport-specific impact and mechanical strain affecting the balance between the muscle and the bone. This study provides insights into how training-induced body composition impacts the balance between the tissues in female athletes.
Performance Outcomes after Ulnar Collateral Ligament Tears in Major League Baseball Pitchers.
Elsabbagh Z, Sulieman A, Le Y … +4 more , Salih S, Moazzam M, Suresh S, Best M
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jun · PMID 41352339 · Publisher ↗
We evaluated performance and salary outcomes following ulnar collateral ligament surgery in Major League Baseball pitchers. This retrospective cohort included 277 pitchers who underwent surgery between 2000 and 2024. Amo...
We evaluated performance and salary outcomes following ulnar collateral ligament surgery in Major League Baseball pitchers. This retrospective cohort included 277 pitchers who underwent surgery between 2000 and 2024. Among the 267 pitchers with available return-to-play data, 85% returned to professional competition and 35% had a multiyear contract at the time of injury. Performance, measured as league-adjusted changes in earned run average, fielding independent pitching, and walks plus hits per inning pitched, declined significantly after return (earned run average:+1.45, 95% confidence interval: 0.63-2.26, and =0.01; fielding independent pitching:+0.88, 95% confidence interval: 0.50-1.27, and <0.01; walks plus hits per inning pitched:+0.26, 95% confidence interval: 0.14-0.37, and <0.01). In contrast, salary increased by an average of 16.6% after era adjustment. In multivariable models, greater Major League Baseball experience before injury (=0.03), higher pre-injury wins above replacement (<0.01), and multiyear contract status (<0.01) independently predicted higher post-injury salary, while age, handedness, and in-season injury were not significant. Having a multiyear contract was also the only significant predictor of return-to-play (=0.049). Overall, Major League Baseball pitchers demonstrated significant performance declines despite salary growth, reflecting service-time progression and contractual security rather than immediate post-injury output.
Cardiorespiratory Fitness Prediction in Vestibular Hypofunction: Does One Size Fit All?
Ruiz-Rios M, Maldonado-Martin S, Lekue A … +5 more , Argaluza-Escudero J, Corres P, Tous-Espelosin M, Tojal-Sierra L, Garcia-Tabar I
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jul · PMID 41330559 · Publisher ↗
Cardiorespiratory fitness is a strong predictor of health and mortality. However, its gold-standard assessment, peak oxygen uptake via cardiopulmonary exercise testing, is not always feasible in clinical practice. This s...
Cardiorespiratory fitness is a strong predictor of health and mortality. However, its gold-standard assessment, peak oxygen uptake via cardiopulmonary exercise testing, is not always feasible in clinical practice. This study aimed to (1) develop exercise-based cardiorespiratory fitness prediction models for people with vestibular hypofunction and (2) evaluate the applicability of existing models to this population. Fifty-four adults with unilateral or bilateral vestibular hypofunction (56% women) completed maximal cardiopulmonary exercise testing for peak oxygen uptake determination. Cardiorespiratory fitness prediction models were developed using maximal vestibular hypofunction and submaximal vestibular hypofunction (vestibular hypofunction-specific submaximal prediction model with gas-based analysis and vestibular hypofunction-specific submaximal prediction model without gas-based analysis) test characteristics. A 100-fold repeated cross-validation assessed model accuracy, maximal vestibular hypofunction (=0.90 and standard error of the estimate=3.0), vestibular hypofunction-specific submaximal prediction model with gas-based analysis (=0.86 and standard error of the estimate=3.6), and vestibular hypofunction-specific submaximal prediction model without gas-based analysis (=0.79 and standard error of the estimate=4.3) showed high predictive accuracy, with minimal bias (< 1%). Existing equations misestimated cardiorespiratory fitness (effect size=0.56-0.68, large). Predictions within one or more metabolic equivalent of task were higher for vestibular hypofunction models, reaching up to 8-9 out of 10 individual cases. The newly developed vestibular hypofunction-specific models offer more accurate, clinically applicable tools for cardiorespiratory fitness estimation across various clinical scenarios, including settings where maximal testing is not feasible. An automated calculator was developed to support clinical implementation in vestibular hypofunction management.
Fatigue- and Training-Related Differences in Muscle Activation and Coordination.
G Santos PD, Vaz JR, Gomes M … +3 more , Barão G, Infante J, Pezarat-Correia P
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jun · PMID 41297828 · Publisher ↗
Acute adaptations to fatiguing conditions may be altered concerning the training background. Muscle activation and coordination are affected by fatigue, although differences between subjects with different training statu...
Acute adaptations to fatiguing conditions may be altered concerning the training background. Muscle activation and coordination are affected by fatigue, although differences between subjects with different training status remain unclear. This study evaluated 28 individuals, investigating differences between strength-trained and untrained individuals in leg-press isometric maximum voluntary contractions before and after a back-squat fatiguing protocol. The peak force, rate of force development, electromyographic amplitude of seven lower-limb muscles, rate of electromyographic rise of agonist muscles and intermuscular coherence between synergist or antagonist pairs of muscles were evaluated. Strength-trained individuals exhibited a greater peak force, maximal rate of force development and rate of force development at 150-200 ms. All force-related variables decreased with fatigue in both groups, and the peak force decreased to a greater extent in strength-trained individuals. The electromyographic amplitudes of the vastus medialis (=0.005) and rectus femoris (=0.039) increased in both groups, and the rate of electromyographic rise of the rectus femoris increased in strength-trained individuals but decreased in untrained individuals (time x group interactions: 0.006<<0.025). Additionally, coherence analysis revealed greater coherence in the 15-35 Hz band between the rectus femoris and the vastus medialis in untrained individuals than in strength-trained individuals, while fatigue affected coherence across the bands of interest differently concerning the functional relationship between the paired muscles. Different training status imply different acute responses to fatigue relying on changes in the activation of agonist muscles as well as coordination between the pairs of synergist and/or antagonist muscles.
Equating Unilateral and Bilateral Half-Squat Loads: Neuromuscular and Kinetic Analysis.
Migliaccio GM, Iuliano E, Picerno P … +7 more , Cular D, Kuvacic G, Racil G, Ene-Voiculescu C, Russo L, Dhahbi W, Padulo J
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Apr · PMID 41285374 · Publisher ↗
This study aimed to develop predictive equations for unilateral (1-leg) half-squat exercise loads that would elicit equivalent neuromuscular activation, velocity, and force outputs as bilateral (2-leg) half-squat exercis...
This study aimed to develop predictive equations for unilateral (1-leg) half-squat exercise loads that would elicit equivalent neuromuscular activation, velocity, and force outputs as bilateral (2-leg) half-squat exercise loads. Twelve male soccer players (age 22.9±1.8 y, stature 1.8±0.1 m, and body mass 76.5±6.2 kg) performed both 1-leg and 2-leg half-squats using a Smith-machine. Surface electromyography of vastus lateralis and vastus medialis, barbell velocity and force outputs were measured across incremental loads. Linear regression analyses were conducted to develop predictive equations for 1-leg loads that would match 2-leg exercise outcomes. Three predictive equations were developed: (1) Equivalent muscle activation: 1-leg external load=50% of 2-leg external load -2 kg (=0.923-0.997, p<0.05). (2) Equivalent barbell velocity: 1-leg external-load=71% of 2-leg external load -17.6 kg (= -0.916 to 0.994, p<0.05). (3) Equivalent force-output: 1-leg external load=41% of 2-leg external load - 28 kg (=0.937-0.998, p<0.05). This preliminary investigation provides initial predictive equations for equating unilateral and bilateral half-squat exercises, though validation on independent populations remains necessary. These tools enable practitioners to estimate equivalent loads between exercise modalities using a single one-repetition maximum assessment, facilitating targeted training and rehabilitation program development through accurate load prescription and performance comparisons. Further research is needed to validate these equations on large population and in different sports.
Systematic Review of Clinical and Performance Outcome Measures Reported for Softball Pitchers.
Sloma K, Holtz K, Butler L … +4 more , Downs Talmage J, Bordelon N, Ulman S, Oliver G
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jul · PMID 41285373 · Publisher ↗
Fastpitch softball is popular among adolescent and collegiate female athletes. Softball pitchers are susceptible to overuse injuries, and clinical and performance outcome measures can be used to evaluate injury risk and...
Fastpitch softball is popular among adolescent and collegiate female athletes. Softball pitchers are susceptible to overuse injuries, and clinical and performance outcome measures can be used to evaluate injury risk and readiness to return to play. Our purpose was to examine clinical and performance-related outcome measures in pitchers using a systematic review of the softball literature published since 1990. PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, and SPORTDiscus databases were searched using the term "softball" AND "pitching" OR "injuries". Inclusion criteria were studies reporting clinical or performance outcomes like strength, range of motion, anthropometrics, and patient-reported measures. A preliminary screening of studies was completed based on abstracts. Full-text articles were reviewed by two reviewers. Thirty-seven studies met all inclusion criteria. The risk of bias was low for all included studies. Studies reporting body composition (= 4), range of motion (= 10), strength (=12), functional testing (=4), and patient-reported outcomes (=3) were included in data extraction. There was a high degree of variability in outcome measures used to evaluate softball pitchers. Ten case studies were included in the discussion of results. Researchers would benefit from a standardized list and protocol for clinical and performance outcome measures used for softball pitchers. This systematic review identifies important gaps in the literature.
Resistance Training Improves Hemodynamics Involving Autonomic and Immune Responses.
Rachid-Wolpp ET, Brill B, Reis AS … +11 more , Moura-Maia MS, Moreira-Silva NN, Alvarez-Souza M, Silva-Sousa M, Silva-Sousa E, Monteiro FR, Bachi ALL, de Oliveira LVF, Bella YF, Filho A, Vieira R
Int J Sports Med · 2025 Nov · PMID 41270793 · Publisher ↗
Aging impairs cardiovascular, autonomic and immune responses. Whether the resistance training influences such responses is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that resistance training could attenuate such impairments in ol...
Aging impairs cardiovascular, autonomic and immune responses. Whether the resistance training influences such responses is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that resistance training could attenuate such impairments in older adults. Sixty-eight older adults were randomized into a control group (=38) and a training group (=31). Resistance training sessions were conducted three times per week, 12-week period, at a moderate intensity (65%-80% of 1 RM). Cardiovascular hemodynamics were evaluated by impedance cardiography (PhysioFlow), electrocardiogram including autonomic imbalance, a 1 minute sit-to-stand test including partial oxygen saturation (SpO) monitoring, maximal expiratory pressure, maximal inspiratory pressure, whole blood analysis and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in plasma. After 12 weeks of resistance training, an improvement in stroke volume (<0.0092), cardiac output (<0.0235), systemic vascular resistance (<0.0424), end diastolic volume (<0.0053), early diastolic function (<0.0398), pNN50 (<0.0485), and the TRI (<0.0029) was observed when comparing pre- versus post-intervention in the resistance training group. Resistance training also improved maximal expiratory pressure (<0.0036) and maximal inspiratory pressure (<0.0034). Functional capacity in the 1- minute sit-to-stand test (<0.0004) and oxygen desaturation (<0.0008) were improved in the resistance training group. In addition, resistance training decreased serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 (<0.0001) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (<0.043), and increased anti-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-10 (<0.0003) and protein klotho (<0.0001). Resistance training improves cardiovascular hemodynamics, autonomic imbalance and immune response in older adults, while the control group did not show any evolution.
Differences in Fast and Slow Exchange Durations in Youth Baseball Catchers.
Zappa R, Mauldin N, Nebel AR … +2 more , Lerch B, Oliver GD
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Apr · PMID 41253175 · Publisher ↗
Preventing opponents from stealing bases is crucial to the game's outcome and to determining a catcher's effectiveness. This study aimed to compare the durations of the throwing phases between the fastest and slowest exc...
Preventing opponents from stealing bases is crucial to the game's outcome and to determining a catcher's effectiveness. This study aimed to compare the durations of the throwing phases between the fastest and slowest exchange durations in youth catchers. Kinematic data of 21 youth catchers (12+3 yrs, 52.7+14.8 kg, 1.57+0.15 m) were collected. Exchange duration consisted of three phases (initiation, arm-cocking, and acceleration). Total phase time and percentage of exchange duration were analyzed. Two repeated-measures Multivariate Analyses of Variance compared participants' fastest and slowest trials (α=0.05). Significant within-subject differences were observed between fast and slow trials in total time (< 0.001) and percentage time analyses (< 0.001). Univariate analysis revealed significantly shorter in total time of start phase (Fast: 0.74±0.22s, Slow: 1.15±0.46s, < 0.001) and percentage time (Fast: 75.6±7.7%, Slow: 82.1±6.6%, < 0.001) in fast compared to slow trials, whereas the arm-cocking (Fast: 18.9±6.5%, Slow: 13.9±5.2%, < 0.001) and acceleration phases (Fast: 5.5±2.2%, Slow: 4.0±2.0%, < 0.001) took up larger percentages of the overall time, while having no difference in total time (> 0.705). Length of the initiation phase had the greatest effect on exchange duration, suggesting that youth catchers can train to reduce the time of this phase to increase performance.
Ground Reaction Forces and Peak Throwing Shoulder Forces in Softball High School Pitchers.
Friesen KB, Jump IP, Oliver GD
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jun · PMID 41237813 · Publisher ↗
To optimize pitching performance, pitchers must generate substantial ground reaction forces to aid pitch velocity while minimizing the forces experienced in their throwing shoulder. Extremely high shoulder forces are ge...
To optimize pitching performance, pitchers must generate substantial ground reaction forces to aid pitch velocity while minimizing the forces experienced in their throwing shoulder. Extremely high shoulder forces are generally thought to be injurious for softball pitchers. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the relationship between ground reaction forces during the propulsion phase of the pitch and peak shoulder forces during the pitch. Thirty-two high school softball pitchers (1.70±0.06 m, 76.09±17.50 kg, and 15±1 y) pitched fastballs for strikes. Kinematic and kinetic data from the three fastest pitches were averaged for analysis. The relationships between ground reaction forces during pitch propulsion and peak shoulder kinetics during the propulsion and acceleration phases were examined via multiple regressions and correlations. A vertical ground reaction force was significantly associated with a peak resultant shoulder force (=-3.176 and =0.003). The rate of ground reaction force development was correlated with the peak shoulder distraction force (=-0.367 and =0.033) and the resultant force during propulsion (=-0.439 and =0.009). These observations underscore the potential significance of lower body contributions and kinetic chain sequencing in reducing shoulder forces during the early stages of the pitch, which may have implications for injury risk as ground reaction forces during pitch propulsion may decline with fatigue.
Effects of Transcranial Stimulation on Resistance Exercise in Mentally Fatigued Subjects.
Solon-Júnior LJF, de Lima-Junior D, Roelands B … +3 more , Boullosa D, Ferreira MEC, Fortes LS
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Jun · PMID 41232569 · Publisher ↗
The objective was to analyze the effect of anodic transcranial direct current stimulation over the the primary motor cortex (M1) on resistance exercise in mentally fatigued individuals. Thirty-five participants performed...
The objective was to analyze the effect of anodic transcranial direct current stimulation over the the primary motor cortex (M1) on resistance exercise in mentally fatigued individuals. Thirty-five participants performed a Stroop task to induce mental fatigue until they reached 50 mm on the visual analogue scale under three different conditions in a randomized, double-blind, crossover experimental trial. The participants completed a resistance training session with six sets for muscle failure with fixed load (Vload=1 ms) after the Stroop task. During the resistance training session, performance parameters as the maximum number of repetitions, power output, and bar velocity were recorded with a linear encoder. Muscle activation (surface electromyography) and the rating of perceived exertion were also measured throughout the resistance training session. The maximum number of repetitions, mean power output, and mean velocity were higher under the anodic transcranial direct current stimulation condition when compared to the sham and control conditions (<0.05). Meanwhile, the relative surface electromyographic activity of the vastus lateralis, and the rating of perceived exertion per set were lower under the anodic transcranial direct current stimulation condition when compared to sham and control conditions (<0.05). This study suggest that anodic transcranial direct current stimulation-induced arousal over the left-M1 brain area thus improving the resistance exercise performances while reducing vastus lateralis surface electromyographic activity and rating of perceived exertion in mentally fatigued subjects.
Biomechanical Impact of Meniscal Layer and Oblique Tears on Knee Joint Stability.
Song B, Wang X, Zheng W … +3 more , Jiao Y, Pu Y, Li G
Int J Sports Med · 2026 Feb · PMID 41197664 · Publisher ↗
Biomechanical studies on meniscus injuries have mainly focused on complete knee joint motion, with limited research on injuries at common flexion angles. This study employs finite element method (FEM) technology to evalu...
Biomechanical studies on meniscus injuries have mainly focused on complete knee joint motion, with limited research on injuries at common flexion angles. This study employs finite element method (FEM) technology to evaluate the biomechanical stability of intact, layer-tear, and oblique-tear menisci under different flexion angles. A knee joint model was constructed using Mimics and Geomagic Studio, with experimental groups categorized by flexion angles and injury types. Results indicate that layer tears concentrate stress in the medial meniscus body and anterior horn of the lateral meniscus, particularly at 30° flexion, while oblique tears cause greater overall stress and deformation, increasing osteoarthritis risk. Patients with oblique tears should avoid high-flexion movements during rehabilitation. FEM enhances diagnostic precision over conventional magnetic resonance imaging, aiding personalized treatment and postoperative assessments. This study offers new insights into meniscus injury pathology, providing a scientific basis for individualized surgical and rehabilitation strategies.
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