Memory [JOURNAL]
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200 papers
Prediction of information value influences memory: the effect of predicted and assigned value on memory.
Gan AKX, Whatley MC, Castel AD
Memory · 2025 May · PMID 40366716 · Full text
We tend to prioritise more valuable information at the expense of less valuable information to optimise the use of our limited memory capacity. Participants better remember information that they judge to be valuable and...
We tend to prioritise more valuable information at the expense of less valuable information to optimise the use of our limited memory capacity. Participants better remember information that they judge to be valuable and that they are told is valuable. Using a recognition paradigm, we sought to examine whether predicting the value of art pieces before learning the experimenter assigned value would influence memory and the quality of retrieval. In two experiments, participants made value predictions about various art pieces and then learned the assigned value. At test, participants provided old/new and remember/know judgments and were tested on the exact value. Results revealed that participants' value predictions influenced memory to a greater degree than assigned value, despite assigned value indicating the amount of reward participants would receive. We discuss these findings with regard to strategic and automatic influences of value on memory, as well as in the context of reward prediction errors (a difference in expected and actual reward).
Do differences in topic knowledge matter? An experimental investigation into topic knowledge as a possible moderator of the testing effect.
Macaluso JA, Fraundorf SH
Memory · 2025 May · PMID 40358425 · Publisher ↗
A large body of research indicates that testing results in better long-term retention compared to restudying. Given the relevance of such effects for education, there is interest in the conditions and learner differences...
A large body of research indicates that testing results in better long-term retention compared to restudying. Given the relevance of such effects for education, there is interest in the conditions and learner differences that may moderate the utility of testing, like background knowledge. It is possible that the testing effect is stronger for those who are more novice, stronger for those who are more experienced, or works equally well for everyone. In four experiments, college students read texts and were tested on them one week later. In Experiments 1, 2A, and 2B, we orthogonally manipulated study strategy (testing versus restudying via reading sentence facts) and availability of background material for a given topic. In Experiment 2B only, participants received feedback when studying via retrieval practice. Experiment 3 employed a mixed design in which each participant used only one strategy or another. Contrary to many past studies, we found an overall testing effect only when feedback was provided. Critically, background topic material benefited overall retention, but we found no evidence that background knowledge moderated the degree of testing benefits. Together, these results suggest that any learning benefits of testing do not depend on having particular levels of existing domain knowledge.
In a UK sample, EMDR and other trauma therapists indicate beliefs in unconscious repression and dissociative amnesia.
Radcliffe PJ, Patihis L
Memory · 2025 May · PMID 40350801 · Full text
This study explored UK mental health professionals' beliefs ( = 178) for autobiographical memory function for trauma in the context of adverse therapeutic outcomes, e.g., false memories. It captures novel data on controv...
This study explored UK mental health professionals' beliefs ( = 178) for autobiographical memory function for trauma in the context of adverse therapeutic outcomes, e.g., false memories. It captures novel data on controversial memory beliefs for unconscious repression, dissociative amnesia and dissociative identity disorder (DID). Study participants were mental health professionals and included non-trauma-focused, ( = 92), trauma-focused EMDR practitioners ( = 62) and (non-EMDR) trauma-focused practitioners ( = 24). Most study participants indicated some degree of belief in repression (>78%) and dissociative amnesia (>84%). EMDR and other trauma-focused practitioners showed elevated agreement for controversial memory notions. The EMDR practitioner group also showed more belief in the diagnostic validity of DID. New data on mental health professionals' beliefs about the aetiology of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES) was also captured. Most study participants "Somewhat agreed" or "Agreed" that "blocked out" trauma memories are causally related to dissociation and physical symptoms, e.g., PNES (>78%); EMDR practitioners showed the highest degree of agreement (91%). The impact of memory beliefs alongside EMDR theory and practice is considered in the context of adverse therapeutic outcomes, e.g., false or non-experienced memories. Recommendations are made for future research to mitigate against adverse health outcomes.
From one generation to the next: perception of frequency of family memory transmission.
Baudet D, Cordonnier A, Luminet O … +1 more , Bastin C
Memory · 2025 May · PMID 40257814 · Publisher ↗
Family serves as a crucial context for intergenerational memory transmission. From an early age, younger generations hear stories from older family members, fostering a sense of belonging, identity, and a deeper understa...
Family serves as a crucial context for intergenerational memory transmission. From an early age, younger generations hear stories from older family members, fostering a sense of belonging, identity, and a deeper understanding of the world. However, the frequency of this intergenerational exchange in daily life remains underexplored. In an exploratory online study, we asked parents and grandparents how often they perceive sharing memories with younger generations (top-down) and how often children and grandchildren perceive receiving these memories (bottom-up). We assessed the perception of the transmission frequency for public and personal events across various timeframes. Our findings indicate that intergenerational memory transmission is perceived as relatively frequent. Notably, grandparents perceived sharing more memories with their children than the children perceived receiving from them. Transmission was also more common between parents and children than between grandparents and grandchildren. Additionally, personal memories were shared more frequently than public events, particularly when both transmitter and receiver had lived through the events. Correlations between perceived transmission frequency and the feeling of closeness suggested that grandparent-grandchild relationships benefit more from memory transmission than other pairs. These results highlight the varied ways in which individuals within families perceive memory transmission, emphasising the complex nature of intergenerational communication.
Differential attentional demands on implicit and explicit associative memory in children 8-12 years old.
Davis EE, Thomas HG, Price MS … +2 more , Mahy CEV, Campbell KL
Memory · 2025 May · PMID 40255126 · Publisher ↗
Associative memory improves during childhood, suggesting an age-related improvement in the binding mechanism responsible for linking information together. However, tasks designed to measure associative memory not only me...
Associative memory improves during childhood, suggesting an age-related improvement in the binding mechanism responsible for linking information together. However, tasks designed to measure associative memory not only measure binding, but also place demands on attention. This makes it difficult to dissociate age-related improvements in memory from the development of attention. One way to reduce attentional demands is to test memory implicitly versus explicitly. In this study, children (8-, 10-, and 12-years-old) completed separate implicit and explicit associative memory tests. For the implicit task, children incidentally encoded pairs of objects by making an object categorization decision. At test, they completed the same task, but unbeknownst to the participants, the pairs were either intact, rearranged, or new. Next, children completed another incidental encoding phase, then an explicit test in which they indicated whether the pairs were intact, rearranged, or new. For the implicit test, all age groups had faster reaction times for intact than rearranged pairs (indicative of implicit associative memory). In the explicit test, memory performance () improved with age. A separate measure of attention related to performance in both the explicit and implicit tasks. Together, these results support that attentional mechanisms contribute to age-related improvements in associative memory.
Meaningful approaches to assessing the size of effects in memory research: applications and recommendations for study design, interpretation, and analysis.
Riesthuis P, Howe ML, Otgaar H
Memory · 2025 May · PMID 40251986 · Publisher ↗
Abstract loading — click title to view on PubMed.
The effect of task difficulty on the aftereffects of prospective memory.
Gan J, Guo Y, Wang E
Memory · 2025 May · PMID 40164537 · Publisher ↗
The aftereffects of prospective memory (PM) are a phenomenon by which, after the completion or cancellation of a PM task, the intention remains active. The current study investigates the effect of task difficulty on the...
The aftereffects of prospective memory (PM) are a phenomenon by which, after the completion or cancellation of a PM task, the intention remains active. The current study investigates the effect of task difficulty on the aftereffects of PM. In Experiment 1, 132 college students were recruited to explore the effect of ongoing task difficulty on the aftereffects of PM. The results of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the commission error rate under the high-difficulty condition was higher than that under the low-difficulty condition. In Experiment 2, 105 college students were recruited to further investigate the effect of prospective memory task difficulty on the aftereffects of PM. The results of one-way ANOVA showed that the commission error rate under the single cue condition was higher than that under the multiple cues condition. The results of the above two experiments indicate that PM aftereffects are easily influenced by task difficulty, which suggests that the PM aftereffects involve controlled processing. The results of this study tested multiple conflicting theoretical viewpoints, which is beneficial for confirming the processing mechanism of PM aftereffects. This study has been registered and the registration number is ChiCTR2500098910.
Repressed memories and the : public perceptions and prevalence.
Anderson KS, Miller QC, Strange D … +1 more , London K
Memory · 2025 May · PMID 40122101 · Publisher ↗
The "memory wars" resurgence has renewed debates over the validity of repressed memories. This revival appears linked to factors such as changing statutes of limitations, confusion about repression, and unchallenged soci...
The "memory wars" resurgence has renewed debates over the validity of repressed memories. This revival appears linked to factors such as changing statutes of limitations, confusion about repression, and unchallenged social media content. In a nationally representative online survey of American adults (= 1581), we examined (a) beliefs in repression and , (b) the prevalence of recovered memory claims, and (c) the impact of question phrasing on recovered memory reporting. An overwhelming 94% of respondents expressed belief in repressed memory, and 77% endorsed the idea that the body keeps the score. Additionally, 3.6% (= 57) of participants self-reported claims of recovered memories previously unknown to them, with an average of 75% confidence in the accuracy of those memories. We also found that asking about unwanted experiences provided a more conservative estimate for recovered memory claims compared to first asking directly about child abuse memories. Finally, qualitative analyses underscore adults' confusion about repression and the media's potential influence. Given the significant emotional and legal consequences of recovered memories, we suggest memory experts must be better at giving our science away if the "memory wars" are ever to really end.
Verbalisation of processes underlying prospective memory.
Martinčević M, Vranić A, Logie R
Memory · 2025 Apr · PMID 40043001 · Publisher ↗
Although prospective memory (PM) has been studied extensively, relatively little research has addressed errors in different steps of PM performance. The aim of this study was to examine errors occurring in different phas...
Although prospective memory (PM) has been studied extensively, relatively little research has addressed errors in different steps of PM performance. The aim of this study was to examine errors occurring in different phases of the microstructure model in PM performance and whether verbalisation can serve in their measurement. We report the results of two experiments in which young adults were divided into experimental and control groups. Both groups solved either a 3-day (Experiment 1) or a 5-day (Experiment 2) version of the Virtual week (VW) task. Experimental groups had to verbalise each PM task before performing it. The results of Experiment 1 showed that verbalisation may prolong the time to execute the task, but in both experiments, verbalisation did not affect the PM performance. In analysing different types of errors, we found that: (1) prospective component errors are more often caused by tasks requiring greater strategic monitoring (only Experiment 1), (2) recall component errors are evident in irregular tasks, and (3) execution errors are more often evidenced in tasks with greater response competition. This confirms that there is a wide range of processes that can lead to PM failures, and verbalisation is one method by which we can detect them.
Does repetition enhance curiosity to learn trivia question answers? Implications for memory and motivated learning.
Chen A, Whatley MC, Halamish V … +1 more , Castel AD
Memory · 2025 Apr · PMID 40042936 · Publisher ↗
Curiosity, an intrinsic desire to seek new information, benefits motivation and learning. While curiosity is associated with novelty, less is known about how the repetition of a question without its answer affects curios...
Curiosity, an intrinsic desire to seek new information, benefits motivation and learning. While curiosity is associated with novelty, less is known about how the repetition of a question without its answer affects curiosity and memory. In two experiments, participants viewed 60 trivia questions, half of which were repeated, and rated their curiosity to learn the answers. Repeated questions had their answers revealed during the second presentation, and participants were given a cued-recall test after 24 h. We found that curiosity ratings remained constant across presentations, but when repeated and non-repeated questions were intermixed, participants were more curious about non-repeated questions, which were relatively more novel (Experiment 1). However, when participants guessed answers before studying them (pretesting), they were more curious about repeated questions (Experiment 2). Curiosity ratings also increased across presentations, perhaps reflecting greater cognitive agency motivated by an eagerness to verify one's guess. Overall, the subjective experience of curiosity appears to be influenced by both relative novelty, as manipulated through repetition, and task demands, specifically whether individuals engage in pretesting, indicating that curiosity-based learning is shaped by various cognitive operations.
Enhanced recognition memory for emotional nonverbal sounds.
Morrow E, Shepardson S, Hamann S
Memory · 2025 Apr · PMID 40040552 · Publisher ↗
Emotion often enhances memory for emotional stimuli relative to neutral stimuli. This emotional memory enhancement effect has been studied extensively with visual and verbal stimuli, yet little is known regarding emotion...
Emotion often enhances memory for emotional stimuli relative to neutral stimuli. This emotional memory enhancement effect has been studied extensively with visual and verbal stimuli, yet little is known regarding emotion's effects on memory for nonverbal (or environmental) sounds, such as dog snarls and infant cries. Additionally, emotion's enhancing effects on recognition for visual and verbal stimuli are selective to recollection (recognition with contextual retrieval) rather than familiarity (recognition based on memory strength), but whether this is also the case for nonverbal sounds is unknown. We examined recognition memory for negative and neutral nonverbal sounds, predicting that memory would be enhanced for negative sounds and this enhancement would be specific to recollection. Participants incidentally encoded negative and neutral sounds, and memory was tested with a remember-familiar recognition memory task after a 15-minute delay. As predicted, recognition memory was enhanced for negative sounds, was better for higher versus lower arousal negative sounds, and was specific to recollection. These findings suggest that key aspects of the emotional enhancement effect also extend to nonverbal sounds. We discuss how current theories of emotional memory which focus on memory for visual and verbal stimuli can be extended to accommodate findings with nonverbal emotional auditory stimuli.
Can AI-generated faces serve as fillers in eyewitness lineups?
Greenspan RL, Bergold AN
Memory · 2025 Apr · PMID 39977276 · Publisher ↗
To create a photo lineup for an eyewitness, police embed the suspect in a group of similar-looking individuals (i.e., fillers). If the witness selects the suspect from these photos of similar-looking people, then this pr...
To create a photo lineup for an eyewitness, police embed the suspect in a group of similar-looking individuals (i.e., fillers). If the witness selects the suspect from these photos of similar-looking people, then this provides evidence they remember the suspect from the crime event. Selecting appropriate fillers is one of the most difficult aspects of lineup construction. In these studies, we explore the feasibility of using artificial intelligence (AI) to generate images of fake people to serve as fillers in a photo lineup. Our results show that people largely fail to detect the differences in a lineup between the real photo of the suspect and the AI-generated fillers. Across different identification outcomes and related decision criteria, we found no evidence of differences between lineups with real and AI-generated fillers. Our study focused on a white, male target and future research is needed to test the generalizability of these findings. We conclude by discussing the feasibility and implications of the use of this technology in police investigations.
Recovered memory practices in Ireland: public & professional perspectives.
Murphy G, Coyle O, Kerin M … +2 more , Ryan C, Dempsey M
Memory · 2025 Apr · PMID 39946242 · Publisher ↗
We surveyed members of the public and professionals to assess opinions and experiences related to recovered memories in Ireland ( = 675). We found that memory recovery amongst therapy-goers in Ireland is relatively commo...
We surveyed members of the public and professionals to assess opinions and experiences related to recovered memories in Ireland ( = 675). We found that memory recovery amongst therapy-goers in Ireland is relatively common (8%). Likewise, many practitioners (29%) reported some experience with a client recovering a memory and most had actually recovered a memory themselves. However, both groups struggled with definitions of recovered memories: initially reporting inflated figures (19% & 84%, respectively) that incorporated normal, non-repression-related memory mechanisms. Working therapists and current trainees reported a profound lack of training in this area. We also replicated a previously demonstrated scientist-practitioner divide, where researchers were more likely than practitioners to endorse the fallibility of memory. Though the study related to a sensitive topic, both professionals and members of the public reported enjoying the survey and did not find the questions distressing or ethically problematic - encouraging for future research in this field.
Same concept, different label: the effect of repressed memory and dissociative amnesia terminology on beliefs and recovered memory admissibility in court.
Salkeld A, Patihis L
Memory · 2025 Mar · PMID 39924462 · Publisher ↗
Controversy still surrounds recovered memories, centred around replacing the term repressed memory with dissociative amnesia. This study investigated whether exposure to these terminologies impacted legal opinions. In to...
Controversy still surrounds recovered memories, centred around replacing the term repressed memory with dissociative amnesia. This study investigated whether exposure to these terminologies impacted legal opinions. In total, 886 participants were recruited across four experiments (1a/2a, followed by 1b/2b). In experiments 1a/1b, participants were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: Repressed Memory, Dissociative Amnesia, and Control. They tested whether reading a paragraph/watching a video about one of these terms would impact their opinions on the admissibility of recovered memories in court. Experiments 2a/2b focused on dissociative amnesia's inclusion in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Participants were randomly allocated to either Dissociative Amnesia or DSM-5 Authority. Again, participants read a paragraph/watched a video corresponding to their condition, ascertaining any significant differences in opinions on recovered memory admissibility. Experiment 1a found that the Dissociative Amnesia condition was significantly more likely to support recovered memory admissibility than those in the Control condition. Experiment 1b found a significant difference between the Repressed Memory and Control condition. Experiments 2a/2b yielded no significant results. These results suggest that different terminologies affect opinions regarding recovered memory admissibility in students compared to the public (repressed memory on the public; dissociative amnesia in students).
Do emotionally negative events impair working memory as a result of intrusive thoughts?
Chouinard-Gaouette L, Blanchette I
Memory · 2025 Apr · PMID 39915282 · Publisher ↗
Individuals exposed to highly stressful negative events show alterations in working memory (WM) function. The correlational nature of these studies makes it impossible to determine whether exposure to negative events its...
Individuals exposed to highly stressful negative events show alterations in working memory (WM) function. The correlational nature of these studies makes it impossible to determine whether exposure to negative events itself decreases WM. Such events elicit intrusive thoughts which may cause interference in WM. The main objective of this study was to verify the causal impact of a recent negative event on WM, and to examine the role of intrusive thoughts. One hundred and twenty participants completed a WM task (-Back). Then, 90 of these participants watched an emotionally negative video and 30 watched a neutral video. The emotional impact of the video was assessed, and the frequency of intrusive thoughts were measured. WM was measured a second time (-Back) while recording EEG (P300). Contrary to our hypothesis, the negative video did not impair behavioural WM performance compared to the neutral video. However, it disrupted WM neurocognitive processes (lower P300 amplitude) under low WM load. In the high load condition, greater emotional reaction was linked to poorer accuracy and more intrusive thoughts, which in turn slowed response times. Our results suggest that the impact of negative emotions on WM depends on both individual sensitivity and cognitive load.
Mindfulness meditation can improve both focal and non-focal prospective memory performance.
Nie T, Wang M, Guo Y
Memory · 2025 Apr · PMID 39903524 · Publisher ↗
Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember a delayed intention to perform in a specific future situation. According to the extent to which PM cues overlap with ongoing task processing, PM can be divided into foca...
Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember a delayed intention to perform in a specific future situation. According to the extent to which PM cues overlap with ongoing task processing, PM can be divided into focal PM and non-focal PM. Mindfulness meditation includes focused attention (FA) meditation and open monitoring (OM) meditation. The present study was conducted with 81 participants, using a 3 (group: FA, OM, control group) × 2 (focality: focal, non-focal) design to investigate the effects of FA meditation and OM meditation on PM with focal and non-focal cues. The results showed that there was no difference in the facilitative effects of FA and OM on PM with focal and non-focal cues. Meanwhile, both types of mindfulness meditation improved PM performance by enhancing cue monitoring. The results of this study confirmed the views of preparatory attention processing and memory processing theory. This study has been registered and the registration number is ChiCTR2400094091.
Judgments of learning improve memory for word lists via enhanced item-specific encoding: evidence from categorised, uncategorised, and DRM lists.
Maxwell NP
Memory · 2025 Apr · PMID 39903202 · Publisher ↗
Judgments of Learning (JOLs) have been repeatedly shown to be reactive on memory. However, the specific processes underlying JOL reactivity differ based on the type of stimuli participants study and the method by which t...
Judgments of Learning (JOLs) have been repeatedly shown to be reactive on memory. However, the specific processes underlying JOL reactivity differ based on the type of stimuli participants study and the method by which their memory is assessed. Recently, item-specific encoding has been proposed as a mechanism explaining JOL reactivity on word list learning. To test this account, participants studied categorised and uncategorised word lists (Experiments 1A/1B) or DRM lists (Experiment 2) while providing item-level JOLs, global JOLs, or silently reading each word. Across experiments, item-level JOLs improved correct memory for all list types but only when recognition testing was used (Experiments 1B and 2). Separately, global JOLs improved free-recall of categorised but not uncategorised lists (Experiment 1A) but were non-reactive on correct recognition (Experiments 1B and 2). Finally, Experiment 2 found that global but not item-level JOLs increased false recognition in the DRM false memory illusion. Taken together, when JOLs are elicited separately for each word, they improve memory via item-specific processes. However, when JOLs emphasise list-wise relations (e.g., global JOLs), reactivity may instead reflect a relational encoding process.
The differential fading of disgust and fear reactions to a personal trauma in a non-clinical population.
Matson LA, Moeck EK, Takarangi MKT
Memory · 2025 Mar · PMID 39866080 · Publisher ↗
Persistent negative emotions are a key post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptom. occurs during/following traumatic events and predicts PTS symptoms, but is overlooked relative to other negative emotions like fear. Here, we i...
Persistent negative emotions are a key post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptom. occurs during/following traumatic events and predicts PTS symptoms, but is overlooked relative to other negative emotions like fear. Here, we investigate how trauma-related disgust fades-or persists-in memory (i.e., a person's recollection of how they felt during a traumatic event vs. their current feelings), and over time, relative to fear. In a cross-sectional (Study 1; = 471) and longitudinal (Study 2; = 160) study, participants rated their disgust and fear reactions to a recent stressful/traumatic event, at the time the event occurred (peritraumatic; "then") and at present (posttraumatic; "now"). Study 2 participants provided additional "now" emotion ratings 3 months later. Cross-sectional comparisons showed that whilst participants' disgust and fear reactions were lower in intensity "now" relative to "then", fear faded to a greater degree than disgust. Time since the traumatic event and PTS symptom severity were not related to disgust's relative persistence. In contrast, disgust and fear similarly persisted longitudinally. We conclude disgust and fear similarly persist over time, but disgust persists in memory more than fear. Understanding how to reduce feelings of disgust following trauma is clinically important, since disgust is more resistant to PTSD treatments than fear.
The influence of acute alcohol intoxication and hair visibility on delayed face recall.
Harvey A, Bayless S, Abbot F … +3 more , Jack D, Cisowski K, Kelleher H
Memory · 2025 Mar · PMID 39789850 · Publisher ↗
Many witnesses are intoxicated at crime scenes, yet little is known of their ability to accurately describe perpetrators to police. We therefore explored the impact of alcohol on delayed verbal face recall across two exp...
Many witnesses are intoxicated at crime scenes, yet little is known of their ability to accurately describe perpetrators to police. We therefore explored the impact of alcohol on delayed verbal face recall across two experiments. Participants were administered an alcoholic or non-alcoholic beverage prior to viewing either one or two unfamiliar female faces, which they described from memory the following day while in a sober state. Each to-be-remembered model had long hair worn either loose (i.e., visible), or tied behind the head (i.e., concealed). Testing the hypothesis that alcohol narrows the focus of attention to the external (hairstyle) region of faces, we expected intoxicated participants to have poorer memory of internal face features (eyes, nose, mouth) than sober controls for stimulus faces with visibly long hair. Results revealed poorer recall accuracy for internal face details following alcohol consumption (Exp. 2), but the effect was uninfluenced by hairstyle. Findings are therefore consistent with the more general view that alcohol is associated with a bias to the external (hairstyle) region of faces during face learning, irrespective of hair visibility.
The contamination effect on recognition memory: adding evidence of an adaptive mnemonic tuning.
Santos SMP, Fernandes NL, Pandeirada JNS
Memory · 2025 Mar · PMID 39773341 · Publisher ↗
Previous research has revealed enhanced free recall for neutral items previously associated with disease-causing agents, compared to when they are associated with neutral information; this has been termed the contaminati...
Previous research has revealed enhanced free recall for neutral items previously associated with disease-causing agents, compared to when they are associated with neutral information; this has been termed the contamination effect. However, it remains unknown whether this effect extends to recognition memory and, if so, on what processes it would rely (i.e., recollection or familiarity). This is a relevant question to establish the generality and enrich our knowledge about the effect on the various processes in which memory operates. We employed a Yes/No recognition task with Remember/Know judgments to assess the recognition experience. Online American (Experiment 1) and in-person Portuguese (Experiment 2) samples were used. Furthermore, in Experiment 2, participants responded to a Health Status questionnaire and the Fear of COVID-19 scale, allowing us to explore the relation of the effect with these individual variables. In both experiments, the results revealed that objects were significantly better recognised after having been previously associated with sick faces than with healthy faces. Moreover, participants assigned a higher proportion of Remember-judgments to contaminated (vs. non-contaminated) objects, suggesting these were retained with more contextual information. Exploratory analyses revealed that participants' illness recency correlated positively with the proportion of Remember-judgments. The robustness of this effect is supported by its replication among participants from two different countries, employing both online and on-site procedures. Notably, the to-be-recognised objects were the same across conditions, preventing possible item-selection concerns. Overall, this study expands our understanding of the impact of contamination on memory, emphasising its role in disease avoidance.
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