J Autism Dev Disord [JOURNAL]
Sun
200 papers
Cultural Adaptation and Evaluation of the PEERS Program for Autistic Young Adults in Iran: A Mixed-Methods Study.
Motamed M, Jamaloo S, Amin R … +7 more , Khosrovanmehr N, Tavakolian N, Shirafkan S, Dehkordi R, Shirazi E, Mortazavi SS, Alaghband-Rad J
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41609988 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: This study evaluated the effectiveness of the Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS) for young autistic adults in Iran and explored participant and caregiver experiences. METHODS:...
PURPOSE: This study evaluated the effectiveness of the Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS) for young autistic adults in Iran and explored participant and caregiver experiences. METHODS: Twenty-one autistic males aged 18-30 were randomly assigned to either a 16-week program or a waitlist control group. Weekly group sessions were held for participants and their parents. Quantitative assessments were conducted at baseline, post-intervention, and 12-month follow-up using Farsi versions of validated scales measuring social functioning, empathy, loneliness, and social skills knowledge. RESULTS: While no significant between-group differences were found in most outcome measures using repeated measures analyses, participants in the intervention group showed a statistically significant decrease in conflict scores reported by young adults (p = 0.026) and an increase in Test of Young Adult Social Skills Knowledge (TYASSK) (p = 0.008) after 16 weeks, which remained significant at 12 months (p = 0.046) based on paired t-tests. Focus groups identified several challenges in program implementation, including limited awareness of autism, resistance to homework, dense session content, and cultural barriers such as indirect communication norms and limited opportunities for social practice. However, participants reported meaningful improvements in confidence and social engagement. Families and therapists also expressed high satisfaction and a desire for follow-up sessions. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that PEERS is a culturally adaptable and positively received intervention for autistic young adults in Iran. The study emphasizes the importance of contextualizing interventions to local cultures and addressing the needs of underrepresented populations in autism research.
Sleep and Behaviour in Early Autism: Examining Bidirectional Associations Near Diagnosis.
Sadka N, Richdale AL, Li X … +2 more , Date P, Barbaro J
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41609987 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Sleep problems and behavioural challenges are examined rarely in very young autistic children. We investigated sleep in 173 autistic children, close to their autism diagnosis (M = 2.49 years at diagnosis), focus...
PURPOSE: Sleep problems and behavioural challenges are examined rarely in very young autistic children. We investigated sleep in 173 autistic children, close to their autism diagnosis (M = 2.49 years at diagnosis), focussing on sleep's relationship with daytime behaviour and vice versa, and examining if there were specific sleep problem-behaviour relationships in this very young cohort. METHODS: Caregivers of 173 autistic children (M = 2.58 years at data collection) provided information on their children's sleep (CSHQ; written descriptions) and behaviour (BASC-3, VABS-3). Demographic, ADOS-2 and developmental (MSEL) information were also available. Using parents' written descriptions and normative sleep data, children were categorized as severe (SSP) or typical (TSP) problems sleepers, or good sleepers (NSP) (Roussis et al., 2021). Kruskal-Wallis, correlation and regression analyses examined sleep and behavioural relationships among these three sleep groups. RESULTS: Most children (71.9%) had two or more sleep problems. The TSP and NSP groups did not differ on behaviour, showing significantly less hyperactivity, aggression, attention, and atypicality than the SSP group. Night waking/parasomnias, daytime alertness, and sleep initiation/duration for both sleep problem groups strongly correlated with increased hyperactivity, attention, anxiety, depression, and aggression. Sleep explained 38.4% of variance and 61.8% variance in behaviour, and behaviour explained 22.4% of variance and 32.1% of variance in sleep, for the TSP and SSP groups respectively. CONCLUSION: Reciprocal relationships between sleep and behaviour in autism emphasise the importance of addressing sleep problems in young autistic children, at the time of diagnosis, as they can negatively impact behaviour and well-being.
Advancing Healthcare Provision to Autistic Clients: A Systematic Review of Autism Focused Digitally Delivered Professional Education Programs (DDPE) for the Health Workforce.
Scott T, Whitcombe-Dobbs S, Kennedy AM … +3 more , Woodford E, Hunter J, McLay L
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41609986 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Autistic individuals experience substantial inequities in healthcare access and outcomes, partly due to limited autism knowledge and training among healthcare professionals (HCPs). This systematic review aims to...
PURPOSE: Autistic individuals experience substantial inequities in healthcare access and outcomes, partly due to limited autism knowledge and training among healthcare professionals (HCPs). This systematic review aims to identify and critically analyze empirical evaluations of autism focused digitally delivered professional education (DDPE) programs for HCPs. METHODS: A literature search yielded 1,068 unique articles, of which 80 were assessed for eligibility via full text review. Twenty-three studies (including ten identified through a forward-citation search of eligible articles) met inclusion criteria. RESULTS: Curricula and methods of program delivery varied considerably across studies. Despite this heterogeneity, DDPE programs generally enhanced autism knowledge and self-efficacy among HCPs and were perceived as acceptable and feasible. Findings concerning practice behavior change were mixed but suggested that DDPE may increase autism screening rates and enhance HCPs’ abilities toreliably administer autism diagnostic evaluations. CONCLUSION: Whilst DDPE may represent an effective and socially valid means of delivering autism focused training to the health workforce, more research is needed to determine which program characteristics (e.g., delivery modality, dose, learning features) influence these outcomes. This would be strengthened via employing experimental designs and validated outcome measures. Additionally, there is a need to develop and evaluate DDPE programs which relate to promoting health among Autistic adolescents and adults (including ethnic minorities) and aim to upskill HCPs working in specialist (i.e., psychiatry, acute care) settings. Partnering with Autistic individuals to co-produce DDPE curricula may enhance program relevance, and thereby effectiveness in promoting equitable healthcare access and outcomes among this underserved group.
The Role of Demographic and Autism Specific Factors on the Level of Depression in Autistic Adults.
Sicimoğlu A, de Wit L, Begeer S
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41604130 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Autistic adults often face co-occurring depressive symptoms. While previous studies have focused primarily on depression in children with autism, this study aims to investigate the factors associated with depres...
PURPOSE: Autistic adults often face co-occurring depressive symptoms. While previous studies have focused primarily on depression in children with autism, this study aims to investigate the factors associated with depressive syptoms in autistic adults. By examining a broader range of variables including sociodemographic factors and autistic traits like sensory sensitivity and restricted and repetitive behaviors, we seek to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the elevated levels of depression within this population. METHODS: This quantitative study utilized a cross-sectional design. Two hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. The first analysis included all participants (N=438), focusing on demographic factors such as age, gender, income, in the first model and autistic traits such as repetitive behaviors, and depressive symptoms in the second model. The second analysis included a reduced sample (N=305) that additionally incorporated sensory sensitivity data. RESULTS: Older age, lower income, and a greater number of co-occurring psychosocial problems were significantly associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Our research, unique by its large sample of adults with autism and innovative exploration of potential factors of influence, offers valuable insights into the unique challenges faced by autistic adults. Our findings highlight the difficulty older autistic individuals may encounter in accessing support services primarily designed for younger populations. Moreover, co-occurring problems and lower income can exacerbate these challenges, leading to instability and limited access to resources. These results underscore the urgent need for societal inclusion and tailored support systems to promote the mental well-being of autistic adults.
Ability to Defer Gratification Attenuates the Negative Association Between Autistic Symptoms and Adaptive Functions in Young Children at Elevated Likelihood of Autism.
Konke LA, Falck-Ytter T, Shragge I … +2 more , Bölte S, Brocki K
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41604129 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: The aim of the study is to examine (i) if young children with a family history of autism and/or ADHD differ on executive functions and deferred gratification in comparison to peers with no family history of auti...
PURPOSE: The aim of the study is to examine (i) if young children with a family history of autism and/or ADHD differ on executive functions and deferred gratification in comparison to peers with no family history of autism or ADHD, (ii) the specificity of these domains in relation to early-life autistic and ADHD symptoms and adaptive functioning, and (iii) if deferred gratification and strong EF skills may function as protective factors in the association between symptoms and adaptive behaviour. METHODS: A total of 77 infant siblings at 3 years of age with a family history of autism only, autism and co-occurring ADHD, or no family history of these conditions (FH-TL) were assessed on behavioural lab-tasks (EF and deferred gratification), parent-rated adaptive behaviour using Vineland, and clinician ratings using ADOS-2 (autistic symptoms) and ADHD DSM-5 symptom rating scale (ADHD RS). RESULTS: Group comparisons showed that FH-autism and FH-autism + ADHD groups received lower scores on common EF, but not on deferred gratification in comparison to the FH-TL group. Lower levels of deferred gratification related to autistic symptoms, while lower level on EF was specific to ADHD symptoms. Finally, deferred gratification moderated the association between autistic symptoms and adaptive behaviour, in that stronger ability to defer gratification attenuated the association between autistic symptoms and adaptive functions. CONCLUSIONS: These results are in line with the idea that strong ability to inhibit and defer gratification may act as a protective factor for children with a family history of autism and/or ADHD pointing to affective aspects of EF as particularly important.
Distinguishing Behavioral Comorbidities in Autism: The Predominant Role of Attention and Thought Problems in Social Skills Difficulties.
Adl Parvar T, Karimi K, Rasoulian P … +6 more , Dolatshahi S, Asgarian S, Danandeh K, Taherkhani T, Memari A, Mansournia MA
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41604128 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Social difficulties are fundamental aspects of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, behavioral issues such as attention difficulties, thought problems, externalizing behaviors, and internalizing behaviors ca...
PURPOSE: Social difficulties are fundamental aspects of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, behavioral issues such as attention difficulties, thought problems, externalizing behaviors, and internalizing behaviors can further hinder children's ability to develop social skills. We aimed to explore how co-occurring behavioral challenges may intensify social difficulties in autistic children and adolescents by assessing whether a higher prevalence of behavioral problems is associated with poorer social functioning in real-world scenarios. METHODS: We surveyed parents of 225 children diagnosed with ASD. Parents completed two questionnaires-the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) measuring psychiatric symptoms, and the Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS) assessing observable social abilities. We statistically analyzed the connection between behavioral scores and social scores. RESULTS: The results showed that more severe behavioral issues on the CBCL tied to weaker social skills overall on the SSIS. Among all behavioral domains, attention problems showed the strongest negative associations with total social skills and all subdomains. Thought problems also demonstrated significant negative association with several aspects of social functioning. Externalizing behaviors and internalizing behaviors were also negatively associated with social skills, though their effects were less pronounced than those of attention and thought problems. CONCLUSION: Our findings provide real-world evidence that common co-occurring behavioral problems especially attention problems and thought problems showed strong negative associations with social skill difficulties in autistic children and adolescents. Screening for and adjusting conditions like attention problems, thought problems, and disruptive behaviors may be an important piece of helping autistic children build social competence.
Misophonia Symptoms in Autistic Adults.
Smit DJA, Koyuncu Z, Vulink N … +1 more , Begeer S
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41579329 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Misophonia is the adverse emotional reaction to everyday sounds (e.g., chewing or pen clicking). Since atypical sensory experiences are a key feature of autism, we investigated whether autistic individuals are m...
PURPOSE: Misophonia is the adverse emotional reaction to everyday sounds (e.g., chewing or pen clicking). Since atypical sensory experiences are a key feature of autism, we investigated whether autistic individuals are more liable for experiencing misophonia symptoms. In addition, we explore the contribution of sensory sensitivity to misophonia symptoms in autism. METHODS: Autistic adults (N = 1050) filled out the Amsterdam Misophonia Scale-Revised (AMISOS-R), the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ-28), and the Sensory Processing Questionnaire (SPQ). Chi-square tests were applied to compare proportion of moderate or higher AMISOS-R scores over 20 to previously reported values in the extant literature. Next we modelled the quantitative level of AMISOS-R scores as function of AQ-28 with age, sex, and co-occurring disorders. Finally, we ran a mediation model adding SPQ as a mediator. RESULTS: Autistic people reported moderate to extreme levels of AMISOS-R in higher proportion than the general population. In particular autistic females and those with co-occurring disorders scored higher. In quantitative models, we found that autistic traits strongly predicted misophonia symptoms after correcting for multiple covariates. Both the hearing and vision subscales of the SPQ significantly mediated the effect. CONCLUSION: The increased level of misophonia symptoms in autism and the mediation analyses suggest that autistic traits and sensory sensitivity are factors to consider for a subset of misophonia sufferers, with possible consequences for their clinical interventions.
Interpersonal Coordination Deficits in Joint Action in Pre-school Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Evidence From fNIRS Hyper-Scanning and Machine Learning.
Li K, Yang Y, Zheng C … +9 more , Du B, Zhao Y, Chen Y, Liu J, Cai J, Liu Y, Xia Y, Chen L, Jia F
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41579328 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Whether children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit interpersonal coordination deficits remains controversy. The study employed functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning technology to...
PURPOSE: Whether children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit interpersonal coordination deficits remains controversy. The study employed functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning technology to investigate the performance of children with ASD in interpersonal cooperation and competition coordination tasks under dyadic gamed interaction situation. METHODS: 42 children (21 with ASD, 21 without ASD) performed a dyadic block-building task with collaborative intention (leading condition, following condition, turn-taking condition) (Experiment 1) and a competitive intention (Experiment 2) with an experimenter. Signal brain activation and interpersonal neural synchronization (INS) were analyzed and INS values further classified by machine-learning method and computed by using the SHAP toolkit. RESULTS: Children with ASD showed lower behavioral accuracy and behavioral synchrony in the tasks of the both two experiments; lower interpersonal neural synchronization(INS) in right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ)-right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG), rTPJ-right inferior parietal lobule, and bilateral TPJ pairs in the three conditions under collaboration intention in experiment 1; and lower single-brain activation level in the right inferior parietal lobule (rIPL) under competition intention task in experiment 2. Finally, the children with and without ASD in Ex1 could be successfully discriminated against based on INS value by using Random Forest, AdaBoost, and XGBoost machine learning methods. CONCLUSIONS: From the interpersonal behavioral and neural synchronization, the current study demonstrated the interpersonal coordination deficits in joint action for children with ASD from cooperative and competitive intention; notably, INS is an effective neural indicator and the machine learning method provides a novel strategy for analyzing and validating INS for interpersonal coordination deficits in joint action for the population of ASD.
Correction: Preferences for Identity-First and Person-First Language: A Systematic Review of Research with Autistic Adults/Adults with Autism.
Schuck RK, Chetcuti L, Dwyer P … +6 more , Milosavljevic K, Bury SM, Hedley D, Begeer S, Vivanti G, Uljarevic M
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Mar · PMID 41575712 · Publisher ↗
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Machine Learning-Assisted Autism Risk Stratification in Toddlers Using the Vietnamese M-CHAT-R and Perinatal Predictors: A Cross-Sectional Study in Vietnam.
Van Vo T, Nguyen PM, Nguyen DN … +4 more , Van Nguyen T, Thai DM, Ly HHV, Luu TNN
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41575711 · Publisher ↗
INTRODUCTION: The Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised (M-CHAT-R) is widely used for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) screening; however, evidence on the Vietnamese version and on scalable risk stratification...
INTRODUCTION: The Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised (M-CHAT-R) is widely used for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) screening; however, evidence on the Vietnamese version and on scalable risk stratification approaches suitable for routine preschool settings remains limited. PURPOSE: This study aimed to evaluate the internal consistency of the Vietnamese M-CHAT-R and to develop machine learning (ML) models integrating M-CHAT-R–derived features with key obstetric–perinatal predictors to support ASD risk stratification in preschool-based screening. METHODS: This cross-sectional study conducted in Ca Mau province, Vietnam, 3,639 children aged 18–36 months were screened using the Vietnamese Ministry of Health–issued M-CHAT-R administered. A mobile clinical team performed onsite DSM-5 evaluations, and the M-CHAT-R/F follow-up was implemented for moderate-risk (scores 3–7) cases. RESULTS: Six ML algorithms, including Random Forest, were trained using a 75/25 train–test split with SMOTE applied to the training set. Model performance was assessed using accuracy, recall, precision, F1-score, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). 75 children met DSM-5 criteria for ASD (2.0%); 53.3% were male and 96.0% were aged 24–36 months. The Vietnamese M-CHAT-R showed good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.863). Random Forest with SMOTE achieved the best performance (AUC = 0.983; recall = 0.95; precision = 0.351; F1-score = 0.513) using a refined feature set including M-CHAT-R risk level and a composite biological risk index. High recall with moderate precision reflects a screening-oriented emphasis on sensitivity. CONCLUSIONS: ML- assisted risk stratification may support prioritization for follow-up and specialist assessment in preschool-based pathways in low- and middle-income countries.
Association of the Observer-Reported Communication Ability (ORCA) Measure with Established Communication Measures: Insights From the Angelman Syndrome Natural History Study.
Rader A, Lin L, Jones HN … +7 more , Tan WH, Sadhwani A, Berent A, Friedman B, Lucas N, Gordon K, Reeve BB
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41575710 · Full text
BACKGROUND: The Observer-Reported Communication Ability (ORCA) measure was developed to assess communication in individuals with Angelman syndrome (AS), a rare neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by severely impair...
BACKGROUND: The Observer-Reported Communication Ability (ORCA) measure was developed to assess communication in individuals with Angelman syndrome (AS), a rare neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by severely impaired communication, global developmental delay, sleep disturbances, seizures, and motor impairments. Our goal was to evaluate the construct validity of the ORCA measure in AS using longitudinal data and comparisons with other communication measures. METHODS: Caregivers of individuals with AS enrolled in a multisite natural history study completed the ORCA measure alongside at least one of three other instruments: the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 3rd Edition (Vineland-3), Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, 4th Edition (Bayley-4), or Communication Matrix (CM). ORCA Emerging & Mastery (E&M) T-scores for expressive, receptive, and pragmatic communication were compared with other measures. ORCA change scores over time were examined by age group and genotype. RESULTS: Individuals with AS (n = 192) had a mean age of 12.1 years (range 0.5 to 50.6 years), with 54.7% male. Genotypes included deletions (53.6%), UBE3A mutations (25.5%), and uniparental disomy/imprinting defects (16.1%). ORCA Overall, Expressive, and Receptive T-scores had strong to very strong correlations with Vineland-3, Bayley-4, and CM domains (r = 0.64–0.71). Correlations of the ORCA Pragmatic T-scores showed strong correlations with all measures. ORCA T-score changes were most pronounced in children under 2. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The evidence for the construct validity of the ORCA measure supports its use as a research tool for individuals with AS.
Emotional Reactivity as a Mediator and Moderator of the Relationship Between Psychological Flexibility and Parental Burnout in Parents of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).
Koç R, Akbulut ÖF
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41569505 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Parenting a child diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) often entails ongoing emotional challenges that can contribute to parental burnout. This study aimed to investigate the mediating and moderating ro...
PURPOSE: Parenting a child diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) often entails ongoing emotional challenges that can contribute to parental burnout. This study aimed to investigate the mediating and moderating roles of emotional reactivity in the relationship between psychological flexibility and parental burnout among parents of children diagnosed with ASD. METHODS: A total of 230 parents (74.8% female; Mage = 40.14, SD = 8.27) participated in the study. Participants were recruited through convenience sampling from special educational centers. Mediation and moderation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS macro for SPSS to test indirect and conditional effects of emotional reactivity. RESULTS: Emotional reactivity partially mediated the association between psychological inflexibility and parental burnout. Higher psychological inflexibility was linked to greater emotional reactivity, which in turn predicted higher parental burnout. Moreover, emotional reactivity significantly moderated this relationship (ΔR² = 0.009, p = .025), indicating that the association between psychological inflexibility and parental burnout was stronger among parents with higher emotional reactivity. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that interventions aimed at reducing psychological inflexibility and managing emotional reactivity may help mitigate parental burnout among parents of children with ASD.
Reliability and Validity of the Chinese Version of the Rapid Interactive Screening Test for Autism in Toddlers.
Liu H, Zhang L, Li Z … +5 more , Meng H, Zhang T, Gao M, Zhang Z, Li Y
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41569504 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: This study aims to evaluate the validity and reliability of the Rapid Interactive Screening Test for Autism in Toddlers (RITA-T) in a cohort of Chinese toddlers aged 18 to 36 months. METHODS: Screening was condu...
PURPOSE: This study aims to evaluate the validity and reliability of the Rapid Interactive Screening Test for Autism in Toddlers (RITA-T) in a cohort of Chinese toddlers aged 18 to 36 months. METHODS: Screening was conducted on toddlers aged 18 to 36 months, encompassing those with ASD, language impairments, developmental delays, and typical development. Evaluations were performed using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed), the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-2, and the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers. A random sample of 25 toddlers underwent a follow-up assessment with the RITA-T two weeks later. Critical values were determined based on the sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value of the RITA-T total score in differentiating ASD diagnoses. RESULTS: A total of 114 toddlers were enrolled in the study. The optimal cut-off score for the RITA-T in screening for ASD was determined to be 16, yielding a sensitivity of 0.918 and a specificity of 0.981, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve of 0.961 (95% CI: 0.924-0.998, p < 0.001). Additionally, the scale exhibited strong internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.828), high test-retest reliability (Spearman's rho coefficient = 0.962, p < 0.01), and excellent inter-rater reliability (ICC = 0.975, 95% CI: 0.970-0.979, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The Chinese version of the RITA-T is a robust instrument for the early identification of ASD and is highly applicable for early screening efforts in China.
Developmental Trajectories of Developmental Disorders: Early Diagnosis for an Early Intervention.
Sperandini V, Montanaro FAM, Quarin F … +5 more , Caciolo C, Falvo S, Alfieri P, De Rose P, Vicari S
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41569503 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Early identification of children at risk for Intellectual Disability (ID) is complex, as formal diagnoses are often deferred until school age. However, early signs may emerge during the preschool years. This stu...
PURPOSE: Early identification of children at risk for Intellectual Disability (ID) is complex, as formal diagnoses are often deferred until school age. However, early signs may emerge during the preschool years. This study aims to examine longitudinal changes in cognitive, adaptive and emotional-behavioral functioning from preschool to school age, to identify early markers predictive of later ID. METHODS: Eighty-eight children were assessed at two time points: preschool age (T0) and school age (T1). At T0, children were categorized into three diagnostic groups: Global Developmental Delay (GDD), Mixed Specific Developmental Disorder (MSDD), and Language Disorder (LD). At T1, the same children were re-evaluated and classified into: Intellectual Disability (ID), Language Disorder (LD), and Other Diagnoses (OD). Assessments included clinical observations, cognitive evaluations, and parent-reported questionnaires and interviews. Analyses were performed separately at T0, T1, and longitudinally. RESULTS: At T0, all groups showed impaired adaptive functioning but differed in cognitive abilities, with the GDD group displaying more pronounced delays. At T1, only the ID group maintained significant deficits in both adaptive and cognitive domains. Regarding emotional-behavioral functioning, children with GDD exhibited more attention problems at T0. At T1, the ID group showed increased internalizing and externalizing symptoms, whereas LD and OD groups did not present significant psychopathological issues. A substantial rise in ID diagnoses was also observed at school age. CONCLUSION: Monitoring developmental trajectories from an early age is essential to detect risk markers of ID. Early identification can support timely, targeted interventions for children and their families, improving long-term outcomes.
How Might Comorbid Conditions Co-occurring With Child Autism Impact Parenting Stress?
Shepherd D, Landon J, Goedeke S
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41563662 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Many Autistic individuals present with comorbid conditions, including internalising and externalising behaviours, sleep issues, intellectual disabilities, and gastrointestinal dysfunction. We investigated the im...
PURPOSE: Many Autistic individuals present with comorbid conditions, including internalising and externalising behaviours, sleep issues, intellectual disabilities, and gastrointestinal dysfunction. We investigated the impact of these child comorbidities on parenting stress in an effort to elucidate the underlying mechanism and how they interact with autistic core symptoms. In total, three theoretical models were tested, being the Amplification, Additive, and Mediation Hypotheses. METHODS: Participants were 453 parents of an Autistic child reporting on their child's core symptoms, comorbid conditions, and their parenting stress. RESULTS: Correlation analyses reveal moderate associations between the comorbid conditions and parenting stress, but uncovered a weak link between core symptoms and parenting stress. Regression analyses revealed that, when key variables were allowed to adjust for one another, comorbid conditions were found to be independent predictors of parenting stress. A subsequent path analysis indicated that internalising and externalising behaviours partially mediated the relationship between core symptoms and parenting stress. There was no evidence to support the Amplification Hypotheses, and limited evidence to support the Additive and Mediation Hypotheses. CONCLUSION: The findings reinforce the argument that Autistic children require multidisciplinary services and interventions that stretch beyond their primary diagnosis. Further suggestions for future research into child comorbid factors and parenting stress are discussed.
Associations Between Features of Employment and Job Satisfaction Among Autistic Adults.
Durrani E, Moser C, Mueller SB … +4 more , Libster N, Vogus TJ, DaWalt LS, Taylor JL
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41563661 · Full text
PURPOSE: Many adults on the autism spectrum face challenges securing and maintaining employment. While research has focused on ways to improve employment rates, less is known about the employment experiences of autistic...
PURPOSE: Many adults on the autism spectrum face challenges securing and maintaining employment. While research has focused on ways to improve employment rates, less is known about the employment experiences of autistic adults who obtain jobs and the factors that contribute to their job satisfaction. The present study had two aims: (1) to describe the levels of job satisfaction across several facets in a sample of working autistic adults and compare these scores to normative data from the general population; and (2) to examine the associations of employment features (full-time versus part-time work, job supports, and perceptions of workplace climate) with facets of job satisfaction among autistic adults. METHODS: Participants included 108 adults with a diagnosis of autism who were working in community-based employment. Adults completed an interview focused on their employment experiences and an online survey assessing perceptions of workplace climate and job satisfaction. RESULTS: Participants reported similar levels of job satisfaction across all facets when compared to normative data of similarly aged non-autistic peers. More positive perceptions of workplace climate were associated with all facets of job satisfaction. CONCLUSION: These findings emphasize the importance of a workplace climate for autistic adults that values diversity, makes employees feel safe, and fosters positive relationships between supervisors and supervisees.
Identifying Two Autism Biotypes Using Multi-Task Learning Derived Individual-Specific Functional Connectivity.
Geng G, Xu G, Li S … +5 more , Zhu Z, Liu Z, Liu Y, Wang X, Li X
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41557256 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition with considerable heterogeneity in clinical symptoms and underlying neurobiological mechanisms. This study aims to identify distinct ASD b...
PURPOSE: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition with considerable heterogeneity in clinical symptoms and underlying neurobiological mechanisms. This study aims to identify distinct ASD biotypes by leveraging healthy control (HC) information to extract individual-specific functional connectivity (ISFC) of ASD patients for clustering. METHODS: The study included resting-state fMRI data from 299 male ASD patients and 243 male healthy controls (HCs). We employed multitask learning–based sparse convex alternating structure optimization to extract group-shared and individual-specific connectivity patterns, followed by clustering analysis based on ASD patients’ ISFC features. Subsequently, we compared clinical symptoms, functional connectivity differences across different biological subtypes, and the association between symptoms and brain networks, while evaluating the predictive power of connectivity features for symptoms. RESULTS: Two ASD biotypes emerged with distinct connectivity and behavioral characteristics. Biotype1 showed more severe clinical symptoms and a brain network organization marked by stronger global integration but weaker local segregation, reflected in higher global efficiency and reduced clustering, alongside diminished connectivity in core networks such as the default mode network (DMN). Connectivity outside the frontoparietal network (FPN) was positively associated with communication impairments. Biotype2 showed the opposite pattern—greater local differentiation and reduced global integration—with frontoparietal and FPN–DMN connectivity linked to communication, social, and overall symptom severity. Predictive analyses indicated that different connectivity features were most informative for each biotype. CONCLUSION: This study preliminarily suggests that ISFC may deepen our understanding of ASD heterogeneity and its underlying neurobiological mechanisms.
Evaluation of a Brief Version of Superheroes Social Skills With Autistic Preschool Students.
Radley KC, Hood JK, Giblette G … +2 more , Gray MJ, Vigeland SH
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41555143 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: Social skill interventions are frequently used to support the development of social competence in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The Superheroes Social Skills program (SSS), a multicomponent socia...
PURPOSE: Social skill interventions are frequently used to support the development of social competence in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The Superheroes Social Skills program (SSS), a multicomponent social skills curriculum, has shown promise in supporting social skill acquisition and use in autistic children. The present exploratory pilot study evaluated the effectiveness of a brief version of SSS on social skill accuracy and quality of skill use of five young children with ASD. METHOD: Single-case design (multiple probe design across skills, replicated across participants) was used to evaluate the effect of a brief SSS intervention implemented in a series of weekly 20-minute sessions. Five young autistic children participated in the study. Social skill accuracy and quality of skill use were measured to assess the impact of the intervention. RESULTS: Results of the study indicated that participants increased in social skill accuracy and quality of skill use following participation in the intervention, with statistical analysis of data also supporting the effectiveness of the brief intervention. CONCLUSION: Although preliminary, findings of this pilot study suggest that a brief variation of SSS may have utility as a strategy to address social skill needs in young children with ASD. Given the small sample included in the study, further replication is necessary to address limitations to external validity.
Clinical Correlates of Major Depression in Psychiatrically Referred Youth With and Without Autism: A Controlled Study.
Ghumman U, DiSalvo M, Iorini M … +8 more , Srinivasan A, Saeed A, O'Connor M, Ghaziuddin M, Uchida M, Ceranoglu A, Wozniak J, Joshi G
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41555142 · Publisher ↗
OBJECTIVES: This study investigates the co-occurrence between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) in pediatric populations, focusing on prevalence rates, comorbid psychiatric conditions, an...
OBJECTIVES: This study investigates the co-occurrence between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) in pediatric populations, focusing on prevalence rates, comorbid psychiatric conditions, and their impact on clinical presentation and treatment outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of children and adolescents (ages 3-17) referred for psychiatric care to ambulatory care clinics (pediatric psychopharmacology [N = 2,307] and specialized autism spectrum disorder [N = 416] programs) at a major academic medical center. Psychopathology was assessed by the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Epidemiologic Version and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). ASD was diagnosed using DSM criteria. RESULTS: Our findings revealed a co-occurrence and bidirectional relationship between ASD and MDD (55% of ASD patients had MDD, while 9% of MDD patients had ASD). The symptom profile of depression in youth with ASD was consistent with the typical DSM-based presentation. The burden of psychopathology was significantly greater in the presence of ASD and MDD comorbidity, and in particular the rates of comorbid anxiety disorders, OCD, and psychosis were significantly elevated. Social competence and global functioning were worse in the presence of ASD and MDD comorbidity. CONCLUSIONS: A high prevalence of comorbidity with MDD was observed in psychiatrically referred youth with ASD, with a clinical presentation of MDD that is typical of the disorder. Higher prevalence of anxiety disorders and psychosis was observed in the presence of ASD and MDD comorbidity. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive assessment and tailored interventions for children with co-occurring ASD and MDD, particularly in addressing anxiety and ensuring adequate access to mental health services.
Bridging the Gap: Evaluating the Efficacy of Low-Intensity Developmental Behavioral Intervention and Parent Education on Skill Acquisition in Children With Developmental Disorders Including Autism Spectrum Disorder.
Dzanko E, Pistoljevic N, Erjavec M
J Autism Dev Disord · 2026 Jan · PMID 41553659 · Publisher ↗
PURPOSE: In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where the majority of children with developmental disorders live, access to early, specialized interventions is highly limited. While studies from high-income countri...
PURPOSE: In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where the majority of children with developmental disorders live, access to early, specialized interventions is highly limited. While studies from high-income countries show that tailored early intervention can be effective in learning new skills, there remains a lack of evidence-based approaches specifically designed for the realities of LMICs. METHODS: The study included 50 preschoolers, 25 of whom (mean age = 52.4 months) participated in an individualized developmental and behavioral program combined with parent education in addition to preschool attendance over a six-month period. The remaining 25 children (mean age = 50.5 months) attended only preschool. The intervention averaged 2.9 h per week (range: 2.1-4 h) and targeted age-appropriate developmental goals. Additionally, parents received an average of 0.6 h per week (range: 0.2-0.7 h) of education to support the generalization of skills to daily life. RESULTS: Children who received the individualized developmental and behavioral intervention combined with parent education in addition to preschool made statistically significant progress across all developmental areas compared to those who attended only preschool. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight the potential of locally adapted, evidence-based, low-intensity interventions, combined with parent education, to improve outcomes for children with developmental disorders, including autism, in LMICs.
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