Psychoneuroendocrinology [JOURNAL]
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200 papers
Maternal cortisol levels during pregnancy: Associations with fetal anthropometry and infant cognitive development at three months postpartum.
de Farias Sokolovsky B, Coelho FT, Fogaça TB … +11 more , da Rosa LC, Pinheiro IAT, Scholl CC, Ardais AP, Nedel F, Bast RKSS, de Matos MB, Trettim JP, de Avila Quevedo L, Ghisleni GC, Pinheiro RT
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 Jun · PMID 41830723 · Publisher ↗
Pregnancy involves profound endocrine and metabolic adaptations, such as the increase in maternal cortisol levels, which plays a central role in fetal maturation and appropriate fetal development. However, at high levels...
Pregnancy involves profound endocrine and metabolic adaptations, such as the increase in maternal cortisol levels, which plays a central role in fetal maturation and appropriate fetal development. However, at high levels, evidence suggests that exposure to maternal cortisol can be harmful to fetal growth and subsequent infant neurodevelopment. This study examined the associations between maternal serum cortisol levels during gestation and fetal anthropometry, assessed by ultrasonography, both measured simultaneously in either the second or the third trimester of pregnancy. It also explored potential relationships between gestational cortisol and infant cognitive development at three months of age, evaluated using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (Bayley-III). This study is nested within a larger project involving mother-child dyads from southern Brazil. The data presented here refers to 632 dyads with complete fetal anthropometric measurements, serum cortisol data, and last menstrual period information. Among the 632 included dyads, 520 infants were assessed for cognitive development at three months of age. In adjusted analyses, higher gestational cortisol levels remained significantly and positively associated with fetal head circumference (B = 0.12, 95% CI: 0.05; 0.19, p = 0.001), abdominal circumference (B = 0.09, 95% CI: 0.02; 0.16, p = 0.015), femur length (B = 0.02, 95% CI: 0.00; 0.04, p = 0.013), and biparietal diameter (B = 0.03, 95% CI: 0.01; 0.05, p = 0.005). No significant association was observed for estimated fetal weight. Additionally, higher maternal cortisol levels during pregnancy were significantly associated with lower infant cognitive scores at three months (B = -0.05, 95% CI: -0.09; -0.01, p = 0.038). These findings suggest that gestational cortisol may exert distinct influences on fetal growth and early cognitive functioning, highlighting the importance of understanding its underlying biological mechanisms.
Left globus pallidus volume moderates the association between traumatic experiences and coping flexibility.
Maciaszek J, Zimny A, Podgórski P … +6 more , Machaj W, Alejnikowa J, Dybek A, Błoch M, Maciaszek A, Misiak B
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 Jun · PMID 41830722 · Publisher ↗
Refugees are frequently exposed to severe trauma, which may impair coping flexibility-the capacity to adaptively shift between coping strategies depending on situational demands. While prior studies have linked coping st...
Refugees are frequently exposed to severe trauma, which may impair coping flexibility-the capacity to adaptively shift between coping strategies depending on situational demands. While prior studies have linked coping styles to hippocampal and thalamic morphology, no research has examined whether subcortical brain volumes moderate the relationship between trauma exposure and coping flexibility in refugees. This study investigated whether volumes of the key brain structures influence this relationship in Ukrainian refugees. Sixty refugees (aged 27.8 ± 6.1 years, 81.7% females) who arrived in Poland after the 2022 Russian invasion and 50 matched controls underwent psychiatric assessment, coping style evaluation, and high-resolution structural MRI. Coping flexibility was quantified using a Between-Strategy variability index from the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations. Moderation analyses showed that larger left globus pallidus volume weakened the negative association between trauma exposure and coping flexibility across the full sample. Additionally, greater bilateral striatal volumes were positively associated with coping flexibility. These findings suggest that structural characteristics of the left globus pallidus may buffer the adverse impact of trauma on coping flexibility, while larger striatal volumes may generally enhance adaptive coping capacity. Results highlight the potential role of subcortical brain structures in resilience and underscore the value of integrating neurobiological markers into models of adaptation in trauma-exposed populations.
Thyroid and depression: Insights from a retrospective real world clinical cohort.
Baweja R, Eisele C, Breitzig MT … +7 more , Free MF, Kalyoncu A, Singh B, Frye MA, Waschbusch DA, Liao D, Saunders EFH
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 Jun · PMID 41825352 · Publisher ↗
OBJECTIVE: To examine whether thyroid functioning is associated with Clinically Relevant Depression (CRD) in a sample from a psychiatric clinic. METHOD: Patients (≥18 years) treated at a psychiatric clinic with a thyroid...
OBJECTIVE: To examine whether thyroid functioning is associated with Clinically Relevant Depression (CRD) in a sample from a psychiatric clinic. METHOD: Patients (≥18 years) treated at a psychiatric clinic with a thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) level and PHQ-9 within 6 months were studied. Data on demographic variables and covariates (diagnoses of mood and thyroid disorders), drug, comorbidity, relevant laboratory information and thyroid hormone therapy (THT) were extracted from the electronic medical record. CRD was defined as a PHQ-9 score ≥ 10. Logistic regression models assessed the relationship between TSH categories and CRD, with subgroup analysis by gender, age, mood and thyroid disorder and THT. RESULTS: The study cohort included 1467 patients with 92 % White, 70 % women and the mean age of 44.3 years. The sample's TSH measurements were distributed between normal (90 %), high (7 %), and low (3 %), and 55 % had CRD. Compared to those with normal TSH levels, those with low TSH had 2.50 (95 % CI: [1.17, 5.36]) times greater odds of having CRD while those with high TSH levels had 1.69 (95 % CI: [1.03, 2.79]) times greater odds of having CRD. This U-shaped association between TSH levels and CRD was observed among women (low TSH: 3.53 [1.37, 9.1]; high TSH: 1.95 [1.02, 3.73]) but not men. Post-hoc analyses of TSH and PHQ-9 items, specific depression symptoms showed differential associations with thyroid function. CONCLUSION: CRD was associated with both low and high TSH, independent of mood and thyroid disorders, psychotropic use and THT. Our findings highlight the utility of serum TSH in identifying patients vulnerable to depressive disorders and the need for further longitudinal research.
Profiles of risk and resilience, and diurnal cortisol rhythms in Mexican-origin mothers.
Ku S, Boyer CJ, Mahmodi M … +1 more , Hibel LC
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 Jun · PMID 41825351 · Full text
OBJECTIVES: To identify distinct profiles based on socioeconomic status (SES), marital status, home and neighborhood environments, and psychological symptoms, in a sample of primarily Mexican-origin mothers, and to exami...
OBJECTIVES: To identify distinct profiles based on socioeconomic status (SES), marital status, home and neighborhood environments, and psychological symptoms, in a sample of primarily Mexican-origin mothers, and to examine how these profiles relate to maternal diurnal cortisol. METHODS: Mexican-origin mothers (N = 143) were assessed for their objective (education, income-to-needs ratio) and subjective SES (perceived financial concern), marital status, home chaos, neighborhood environments (cohesion and quality), and maternal depressive symptoms when their child was approximately 6-months old. Maternal salivary cortisol levels were collected around the time of their wake-up and at their child's bedtime. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to identify distinct profiles of maternal risk and resilience. RESULTS: LPA revealed three distinct profiles with unique patterns of risk and resilience. The Higher-Risk profile (36%) was characterized by low SES, poor home and neighborhood environments, and heightened depressive symptoms. The Resilient profile (46%) displayed low objective SES but low financial concern, positive home and neighborhood environments, and fewer depressive symptoms. Lastly, the Lower-Risk profile (18%) showed relatively high SES, positive home and neighborhood environments, and fewer depressive symptoms. Mothers in the Higher-Risk profile exhibited less pronounced declines in cortisol from wake-up to bedtime compared to those in the Resilient and Lower-Risk profiles. The Resilient group showed a diurnal pattern similar to the Lower-Risk group. CONCLUSION: This study highlights that even in the context of objectively low SES, positively perceived SES, supportive home and neighborhood environments, and low depressive symptoms may serve as resilience factors, promoting healthier cortisol patterns among low-income Mexican-origin mothers.
Associations between adolescent adversity and young adult depression symptoms and allostatic load in Mexican-origin individuals.
Frazier MR, Guyer AE, Hastings PD … +2 more , Robins RW, Swartz JR
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 Jun · PMID 41818849 · Full text
Childhood adversity increases risk for depression and higher allostatic load (AL), defined as long-term wear and tear on the body, and adolescence is an especially sensitive time for adversity to be biologically embedded...
Childhood adversity increases risk for depression and higher allostatic load (AL), defined as long-term wear and tear on the body, and adolescence is an especially sensitive time for adversity to be biologically embedded. Individuals of Mexican origin may face multiple forms of adversities relating to their intersectional identities of ethnicity and class, including ethnic discrimination and economic hardship, the experience of which may further depend on sex. However, relatively little research has simultaneously assessed associations between these two types of adolescent adversity and outcomes of both young adult depression and AL longitudinally in Mexican-origin individuals. This preregistered study addressed these gaps in a longitudinal study of 208 Mexican-origin participants. Ethnic discrimination and economic hardship were assessed annually from ages 10-19 and AL and depression symptoms were assessed at age 26. Sex differences were also tested. Perceived discrimination in adolescence significantly predicted higher levels of depression at age 26 (β =.09, p = .045, R =.03, ΔR = 0.005, 95% CI [.002,.181]). In addition, age 26 depression levels moderated the association between adolescent economic hardship and age 26 AL (β = -.17, p = .03, R =.12, ΔR =.028, 95% CI [-.33, -.02]). Participants exhibited higher AL with high levels of economic hardship but low levels of depression, as well as with low levels of economic hardship and high depression, suggesting that both psychological resilience to economic hardship and the association between mental health and AL may depend on context. Findings indicate intersectional effects of different types of adversity during adolescence on mental and physical health in young adulthood within Latino individuals.
Contributions of yoga and aerobic exercise to acute changes in state affect, circulating BDNF and eCB concentrations, and memory.
Leri J, Crombie KM, Malloy L … +3 more , Wang L, Broski P, Cisler JM
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 Jun · PMID 41812552 · Publisher ↗
BACKGROUND: Acute exercise modulates circulating exerkines and affective states, yet it remains unclear whether mind-body exercise modalities, such as yoga, elicit responses observed in aerobic exercise. This study exami...
BACKGROUND: Acute exercise modulates circulating exerkines and affective states, yet it remains unclear whether mind-body exercise modalities, such as yoga, elicit responses observed in aerobic exercise. This study examined the acute effects of yoga, stretching, moderate-intensity aerobic exercise, and low-intensity aerobic exercise on exerkines and affect. METHODS: Eighty-eight adults (52% female; mean age = 23.3 ± 5.79 years) were randomized to one of two study arms: aerobic exercise (moderate-intensity = 70-75% heart rate max and low-intensity = 40-50% heart rate max) or mind-body exercise (yoga and stretching). At two laboratory visits, participants completed 30-minutes of each condition within their assigned arm in a counterbalanced order. Venous blood collected immediately before and after exercise was analyzed for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and endocannabinoids (N-arachidonoylethanolamine [AEA], 2-arachidonoylglycerol [2-AG]). State anxiety and positive and negative affect were assessed pre- and post-exercise. Linear mixed-effects models tested pre-to-post changes and condition interactions. RESULTS: Moderate-intensity aerobic exercise increased circulating concentrations of AEA (b = 0.10, p = .005), while 2-AG and BDNF concentrations were unchanged across conditions. All four exercise conditions decreased state anxiety and negative affect, whereas only yoga, stretching, and moderate-intensity aerobic exercise increased positive affect. Pre-to-post AEA increases were correlated with changes in positive affect (b = 0.18, p = .041). CONCLUSION: In this randomized study-arm design, moderate-intensity aerobic exercise uniquely increased AEA, whereas affective improvements were observed across modalities. These findings implicate cardiovascular intensity in the endocannabinoid response to exercise, while diverse forms of acute exercise are associated with short-term affective benefits.
Inflammatory biomarkers and white matter microstructure in borderline personality disorder: A cross-sectional study.
Podwalski P, Dawidowski B, Lipiński K … +11 more , Franczak Ł, Wysocki P, Jabłoński M, Wietrzyński K, Plichta P, Tyburski E, Zwarzany Ł, Amerio A, Misiak B, Poncyljusz W, Samochowiec J
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 Jun · PMID 41806442 · Publisher ↗
BACKGROUND: Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a severe psychiatric condition with unclear neurobiology. Inflammation and white matter (WM) abnormalities have been implicated in BPD. We aimed to compare WM microstr...
BACKGROUND: Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a severe psychiatric condition with unclear neurobiology. Inflammation and white matter (WM) abnormalities have been implicated in BPD. We aimed to compare WM microstructure and inflammatory biomarkers between Individuals with BPD and healthy controls (HC), and to test their relationship. METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, female Individuals with BPD (n = 40) and age-matched female HCs (n = 37) were assessed. We measured serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and C-reactive protein (CRP) using high-sensitivity assays. Diffusion tensor imaging was used to quantify fractional anisotropy (FA) in major WM tracts. Group differences were evaluated with appropriate tests and Holm's correction. Associations between cytokines and FA were examined with linear regression adjusted for confounders. RESULTS: Individuals with BPD had significantly higher IL-6 and CRP levels than HCs (padj = 0.006 for both). However, after adjustment for BMI and smoking status, intergroup differences in inflammatory markers were attenuated. They also showed lower FA in the left superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) I and left superior thalamic radiation (STR) compared to HCs (padj < 0.05). IL-6 and CRP levels were inversely correlated with FA in the left SLF I (p < 0.05) after controlling for confounders, indicating greater inflammation was associated with reduced WM integrity. No significant FA correlation was found for the STR. CONCLUSIONS: BPD is associated with elevated inflammatory markers and compromised fronto-thalamic WM integrity. The inverse relationship between cytokine levels and SLF integrity suggests an inflammatory contribution to BPD's pathophysiology. These findings offer novel insight linking immune dysregulation to brain structural connectivity in BPD.
Exploring early and late pregnancy heart rate variability as incremental predictors of postpartum depression and anxiety symptoms.
Eriksson A, Jäghammar MM, Furmark T … +4 more , Wikman A, Elofsson U, Frick A, Fransson E
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 Jun · PMID 41780318 · Publisher ↗
Early identification of postpartum depression and anxiety is critical for enabling timely preventive interventions. Although antenatal self-report measures are strong and widely used predictors of postpartum mental healt...
Early identification of postpartum depression and anxiety is critical for enabling timely preventive interventions. Although antenatal self-report measures are strong and widely used predictors of postpartum mental health outcomes, it remains unclear whether physiological markers such as heart rate variability (HRV) provide incremental predictive value beyond established psychological assessments, particularly when measured at different stages of pregnancy. This study investigated whether HRV indices, measured during early and late pregnancy, before and after a mild cognitive-emotional stressor, contribute incremental predictive information for postpartum depression and anxiety symptoms beyond established psychosocial and health predictors. Ninety-one pregnant women completed psychological assessments and HRV measurements before and after a mild cognitive-emotional stressor in both early and late pregnancy. Postpartum depression and anxiety symptoms were assessed using validated questionnaires. Random Forest models identified several HRV indices - particularly low-frequency/high-frequency ratio and indices reflecting parasympathetic activity- as meaningful predictors of postpartum outcomes, alongside established psychological factors. The models demonstrated high predictive accuracy, and model comparisons indicated that HRV measures provided a modest yet statistically reliable improvement, specifically reflected in reduced mean absolute error for depression and state anxiety. These findings suggest that HRV provides complementary physiological information beyond self-report measures, supporting its potential role in refining postpartum risk prediction - particularly in cases where self-report indicators alone may be ambiguous.
The role of sex hormones in severe mental illness: A genetic exploration.
Veeneman RR, Verweij KJH, Sommer IEC … +2 more , Treur JL, Vermeulen JM
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41762828 · Publisher ↗
INTRODUCTION: Prominent sex differences exist in severe mental illness (SMI), with increasing evidence pointing towards a pivotal role for sex hormones. Elucidation of these hormonal influences is crucial to tailor sex-s...
INTRODUCTION: Prominent sex differences exist in severe mental illness (SMI), with increasing evidence pointing towards a pivotal role for sex hormones. Elucidation of these hormonal influences is crucial to tailor sex-specific prevention and treatment. METHODS: To investigate potential shared genetics and bi-directional causal effects between sex hormone traits and SMI (depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia-spectrum disorder), we computed genetic correlations using linkage disequilibrium score regression and bi-directional summary-level Mendelian Randomization (MR). A range of sensitivity methods was applied and potential mediators were investigated using multivariable MR. Sex-stratified data from genome-wide association studies were used, if available further stratified on menopausal status. We also incorporated other sex hormone traits (progesterone, sex hormone-binding globulin, prolactin, age of menarche, age of menopause) in exploratory analyses. RESULTS: We found a widespread pattern of statistically significant, modest genetic correlations between oestrogen/testosterone levels and depressive disorder/schizophrenia-spectrum disorder, in both positive and negative directions and in both sexes (ranging between -0.22 and 0.13). With MR, evidence for causal effects was largely lacking; apart from weak evidence for a causal, increasing effect of testosterone levels on schizophrenia-spectrum disorder risk in males, which was mediated by CRP. Conversely, there was very weak evidence for a causal, increasing effect of liability to schizophrenia-spectrum disorder on testosterone levels in both sexes. CONCLUSION: This study offers new insights into the complex aetiology of SMI by comprehensively mapping genetic associations with sex hormone traits, emphasizing the need to further investigate sex hormones' impact on SMI using larger and more precisely phenotyped samples to identify individuals particularly vulnerable to hormonal disturbances.
Investigating a biopsychosocial model of depression in autistic youth: The intersection of cortisol and depressive symptoms.
Corbett BA, McGonigle T, Ijeli N … +3 more , Vandekar S, Muscatello RA, Sparks S
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41762477 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Depression is a leading mental health concern in adolescents. The maturation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis during adolescence coincides with higher basal cortisol, and elevations in evening...
BACKGROUND: Depression is a leading mental health concern in adolescents. The maturation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis during adolescence coincides with higher basal cortisol, and elevations in evening cortisol have been associated with depressive symptoms. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is differentiated by challenges with socioemotional reciprocity. Research in autistic youth has shown earlier and higher rates of depressive symptoms and elevated evening cortisol. The extent to which cortisol profiles may be linked to depressive symptoms in ASD has not been explored. METHODS: Participants included 244 youth, 140 autistic and 104 neurotypical, aged 10-16 over four years. The Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) 2nd Edition Total T-score assessed depressive symptoms. Salivary morning and evening cortisol collected over three days in the home were log transformed and averaged. We fit a mixed effects model for CDI Total scores with log-transformed cortisol (fit with natural cubic splines) as the main variable of interest, adjusting for diagnosis (ASD or TD), nonlinear age (fit with natural cubic splines), sex, and use of psychotropic medication. We also allowed for diagnosis-by-cortisol and sex-by-cortisol interactions. RESULTS: There was a main effect of morning cortisol on the CDI total score (p = 0.028, robust effect size index (RESI) = 0.17), but no main effect for evening cortisol (p = 0.421, RESI=0.00). There was a diagnosis-by-evening cortisol interaction (p = 0.001, RESI = 0.25), but no diagnosis-by-morning cortisol interaction; the ASD CDI scores were flat across evening cortisol values (p = 0.824), however increasing evening cortisol in the interval 0.11-0.80 nmol/L was associated with increasing CDI in the TD group (p = 0.005). We observed a significant morning cortisol by age interaction (p = 0.029, RESI = 0.18). CONCLUSIONS: Results replicate previous findings in autism showing higher depressive symptoms, but do not show a clear association with cortisol levels. Elevations in evening cortisol were associated with higher depressive symptoms in neurotypical youth; a link previously found in non-autistic adolescents and adults.
Linking early adversity to trait level cortisol: The role of cultural resilience in latino adolescents.
Gusman MS, Aguilar K, Grimm KJ … +2 more , Causadias JM, Doane LD
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41747451 · Publisher ↗
Latent trait cortisol (LTC) has been established across multiple samples as a stable person-level indicator of hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis functioning. However, extant research among predominantly non-Hispa...
Latent trait cortisol (LTC) has been established across multiple samples as a stable person-level indicator of hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis functioning. However, extant research among predominantly non-Hispanic White samples linking early life adversity to LTC has produced inconsistent findings, likely due to methodological and demographic differences. Using a cultural neurobiological framework, we examined whether cultural resilience factors (ethnic racial identity [ERI], bicultural competence [BC]) may promote healthier LTC levels and protect against the deleterious effects of exposure to early adversity among Latino adolescents. Salivary cortisol was collected five times a day across three weekdays in a sample of 197 Latino high school seniors (M=18.1; 64.4 % female). Self-reported questionnaires assessing demographics, health behaviors, adverse experiences, ERI, and BC (i.e., comfort and facility subscales) were also collected. Confirmatory factor analysis modeled LTC using waking and 30-minute post-waking samples. Structural equation modeling revealed that greater early adversity predicted lower LTC (b = -.21, SE =.08, p = .04). We found no promotive nor protective effects of ERI. Bicultural facility predicted greater LTC (b =.25, SE =.08, p = .02) but did not moderate the association between adversity and LTC. Consistent with hypo-arousal theories, early adversity was associated with reduced trait-like physiological stress regulation (LTC) among Latino adolescents, whereas the ease with which youth navigate host and heritage culture demands was linked with higher LTC levels (i.e., better physiological stress regulation). Burgeoning literature establishing LTC as a trait-level cortisol construct should continue to be contextualized by known risk factors as well as culturally salient processes.
A randomized trial of prenatal cognitive behavioral stress management effects on obstetric health outcomes and infant cortisol levels.
Urizar GG, Yim IS, Barragan R … +3 more , Nguyen J, Manning G, Dixon-Hamlett A
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41747450 · Full text
BACKGROUND: Altered cortisol patterns during pregnancy have been linked to heightened risk for obstetric health complications (e.g., low infant birthweight) and dysregulated infant cortisol levels after birth, particular...
BACKGROUND: Altered cortisol patterns during pregnancy have been linked to heightened risk for obstetric health complications (e.g., low infant birthweight) and dysregulated infant cortisol levels after birth, particularly in chronically stressed, low-income and ethnic minority families. Considering the detrimental effects that dysregulated cortisol may have on maternal and infant health, prenatal interventions aimed at cortisol regulation in at-risk families are needed. In a previous study, we reported that low-income, ethnic minority pregnant women randomized to a prenatal cognitive behavioral stress management (CBSM) intervention showed improved pre- and postnatal stress and salivary cortisol patterns relative to a control group. The current study extends this work by investigating whether families who received this prenatal CBSM intervention, relative to a control group, experienced fewer obstetric health complications and more regulated infant post partum cortisol patterns, and if maternal cortisol patterns and psychosocial factors (stressful life events, resilience) influenced CBSM intervention effects. METHODS: One hundred pregnant women (76 % annual income < $20 K, <17 weeks of gestation) were randomized to an eight-week CBSM group intervention (n = 55) or a control group (n = 45). Salivary cortisol was collected at baseline (1st trimester), after the intervention (3rd trimester), and at three months post partum (mothers and infants). Obstetric health complications were assessed via a medical record review. RESULTS: Prenatal CBSM (compared to the control group) showed fewer obstetric health complications for mothers with elevated prenatal cortisol levels. Further, CBSM (compared to the control group) showed more regulated cortisol patterns (i.e., reducing total cortisol, steeper decline in diurnal cortisol) for infants of mothers who had high cortisol and stress levels, and for infants of African American mothers. CONCLUSIONS: These results lend support to the effectiveness of prenatal CBSM in enhancing the health of low-income, ethnic minority mothers and their infants, and emphasize the need to investigate the prolonged impact of CBSM in community-based settings.
Moment-to-moment bidirectional associations between human milk glucocorticoids and infant behavior.
Bruinhof N, Beijers R, de Weerth C
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41722487 · Publisher ↗
BACKGROUND: Human milk composition varies between and within mothers and is impacted by both maternal and infant factors. Glucocorticoids in milk may potentially influence infant development. For example, elevated cortis...
BACKGROUND: Human milk composition varies between and within mothers and is impacted by both maternal and infant factors. Glucocorticoids in milk may potentially influence infant development. For example, elevated cortisol concentrations in milk have been associated with more infant negative affect. However, evidence supporting the role of human milk glucocorticoids on infant behavior is inconsistent. The current preregistered study investigated bidirectional associations between diurnal milk glucocorticoids and infant crying and sleep. We hypothesized that 1) higher cortisol and cortisone concentrations would be related to more infant crying and less infant sleep, and 2) more infant crying and less infant sleep would be related to higher cortisol and cortisone concentrations. METHODS: At 6 weeks postpartum, healthy mothers (N = 109) collected three milk samples: in the morning, afternoon, and evening. During this same day, mothers kept a logbook on infant crying and sleep. We calculated the duration of crying and sleeping over three time intervals: 1) the complete interval between each milk sample, 2) the 1.5 h after each breast milk sample, and 3) the 1.5 h before each milk sample. Next, we performed multilevel models to assess the bidirectional associations between cortisol and cortisone milk concentrations and infant crying and sleep. RESULTS: Against our hypotheses, we found that higher cortisol and cortisone milk concentrations were related to more infant sleep 1.5 h after a milk sample. Moreover, more infant sleep 1.5 h before a milk sample was related to higher cortisol and cortisone milk concentrations. No associations were found between milk glucocorticoids and infant crying. CONCLUSION: This study is the first to assess moment-to-moment associations between milk glucocorticoids and infant behavior and broadens our understanding of the role of human milk composition on infant behavior and vice versa.
Sex-specific influences of prenatal inflammation on offspring psychological symptoms in late midlife.
Smith EC, Pike MR, Kring AM … +8 more , Cogan AB, Breen EC, Cohn BA, Cirillo PM, Krigbaum NY, Olino TM, Alloy LB, Ellman LM
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41722486 · Full text
INTRODUCTION: Prenatal maternal inflammation (PNMI) is associated with offspring psychopathology with evidence for sex-specific effects. The current study examined psychological symptoms in offspring during late midlife...
INTRODUCTION: Prenatal maternal inflammation (PNMI) is associated with offspring psychopathology with evidence for sex-specific effects. The current study examined psychological symptoms in offspring during late midlife following exposure to PNMI and explored differential effects of timing of exposure and offspring sex. METHODS: Mother-offspring dyads (N = 139) were ascertained from the Child Health and Development Studies (CHDS) cohort. Data were available for Interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), and soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor-II (sTNF-RII) from archived trimester 1 (T1) and trimester 2 (T2) maternal prenatal sera. Offspring in late midlife (57-62 years) reported depressive (CES-D) and anxiety (STAI-A, trait form) symptoms, frequency of psychotic-like experiences (PLE; CAPE-P15), and were interview assessed for substance use disorder (SUD; SCID-5). RESULTS: Higher levels of T1 PNMI were related to greater frequency of PLE (IL-6, p < 0.01), less depressive symptoms (sTNF-RII), and greater odds of SUD (IL-1RA) (both p < 0.05). Offspring sex moderated an association between higher T1 PNMI and greater anxiety symptoms (IL-6), such that associations were stronger for male offspring. (p < 0.05). In contrast, offspring sex moderated an association between higher T2 PNMI and greater depressive (IL-6, IL-8) and anxiety symptoms (IL-6, IL-1RA), such that associations were stronger for female offspring (IL-6 p < 0.001; others p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: These findings show timing- and sex-specific relationships between PNMI and offspring psychological symptom domains in late midlife and further clarify the impact of PNMI on psychopathology at later stages of life.
The effects of pre-extinction stress vs. physical exercise on contextual retrieval and generalization.
Wolsink LN, Wolf OT, Merz CJ … +1 more , Jentsch VL
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41719892 · Publisher ↗
Exposure to stress hormones before extinction learning leads to strong and less context-dependent extinction memories. However, laboratory stress induction protocols have disadvantages, such as increases in negative affe...
Exposure to stress hormones before extinction learning leads to strong and less context-dependent extinction memories. However, laboratory stress induction protocols have disadvantages, such as increases in negative affect. In this study, we investigated physical exercise as another stress hormone associated, but healthy and more positively experienced modulator of fear extinction memories. We compared the effects of a vigorous-intensity exercise intervention (treadmill running) and psychosocial stress before extinction training on later contextual retrieval and generalization. To this end, 120 (60 women, 60 men) healthy participants underwent fear acquisition training in context A on day 1, the exercise, stress, or control intervention followed by extinction training in context B on day 2, and a retrieval and reinstatement test in context A, B, and C on day 3. The stress and exercise intervention both significantly increased heart rate, salivary cortisol and alpha amylase levels compared to the control intervention. For both skin conductance responses and pupil dilation, fear acquisition was successful and fear responding decreased over extinction trials. The groups did not differ in fear responding during retrieval 24 h later, but psychosocial stress seemed to reduce fear renewal in a novel context. Moreover, exploratory analyses revealed that stress reduced the context-dependency of the extinction memory after reinstatement in men, whereas exercise reduced overall responding in the extinction context. These findings shed light on potential boundary conditions of stress and exercise effects on contextual retrieval of extinction memories, including the generalization to novel contexts with high therapeutic value.
Washout and photostability of hair endocannabinoids and N-acylethanolamines: Segmental stability, head-covering effects, and in vitro sunlight exposure.
Zhang Y, Luo Z, Kirschbaum C … +1 more , Gao W
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41713366 · Publisher ↗
Hair analysis has increasingly emerged as an innovative method capable of effectively tracking the cumulative secretion of endogenous cannabinoids (ECs) and N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) over retrospective periods. However,...
Hair analysis has increasingly emerged as an innovative method capable of effectively tracking the cumulative secretion of endogenous cannabinoids (ECs) and N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) over retrospective periods. However, a potentially influential covariate that remains underexamined is hair-shaft exposure to natural sunlight. The present study comprises three experimental investigations to systematically examine the photostability of ECs and NAEs in hair exposed to natural sunlight. Experiment 1 assessed segmental profiles in 6-cm strands cut into six 1-cm segments, testing stability across segments in a repeated-measures design. Experiment 2 examined head-covering and segment effects on 18-cm strands (six 3-cm segments) from individuals who wore a hijab daily vs. those who did not. Experiment 3 exposed matched hair samples in vitro to natural sunlight 0, 1, or 6 h/day for one month. The study shows that the washout effect along the hair shaft with 1-cm segment was observed for hair AEA but no significant pairwise differences after correction, while other analyte concentrations showed no overall segmental change. In the head-covering study, segmental effects were significant for most hair analytes, except for hair AEA in the non-hijab group. No significant interaction effect between head-covering and segmental profile was observed for any hair analytes between groups except for hair SEA. Sunlight exposure produced a robust, dose-responsive reduction in hair AEA, while the patterns for 1-AG/2-AG and NAEs were smaller or inconsistent across exposure levels. Natural sunlight is a consequential covariate for hair-based EC/NAE biomarkers, most notably reducing AEA under natural sunlight exposure. Segmental proximal to distal gradients and head-covering practices can modulate levels. These findings provide an important experimental and methodological foundation for the application of ECs and NAEs in hair as reliable biomarkers, strengthening future research on long-term physiological monitoring in psychoneuroendocrinology.
Religiosity, spiritual practices, and epigenetic aging: Insights from a population-based sample of middle-aged US adults.
Ashe JJ, Bather JR, Crump AA … +4 more , Sims M, Faber KE, Williams DR, Cuevas AG
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41713365 · Full text
OBJECTIVES: Religiosity and spirituality (R/S) are considered protective factors linked to extended longevity and optimal physiological health, but how these influences manifest remains unclear. Growing evidence suggests...
OBJECTIVES: Religiosity and spirituality (R/S) are considered protective factors linked to extended longevity and optimal physiological health, but how these influences manifest remains unclear. Growing evidence suggests that the impact of R/S may be observable at the cellular level. This study aimed to investigate whether multiple dimensions of R/S were significantly associated with slower biological aging processes through changes in DNA methylation patterns. METHODS: Participant data were taken from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) Study (N = 1310). R/S measures included spirituality, religious centrality, religious/spiritual coping, private religious practices, and daily spiritual experiences. Two epigenetic clocks (DNA methylation-based indicators) - GrimAge2 and DunedinPACE - were assessed as separate outcome variables using multivariable linear regression analyses. Models controlled for race/ethnicity, sex, age, marital status, education, household income, smoking status, alcohol consumption, and body mass index (BMI). RESULTS: In models adjusted for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, all dimensions of R/S were significantly associated with slower epigenetic age acceleration as measured by GrimAge2, and greater spirituality, religious/spiritual coping, and daily spiritual experiences were similarly associated with a slower pace of aging vis-à-vis DunedinPACE. However, after accounting for smoking status, alcohol consumption, and BMI, only the association between religious/spiritual coping and DunedinPACE remained statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Several dimensions of R/S appeared to offer biomolecular advantages linked with aging processes. Future research should seek to investigate additional measures of R/S and explore how these psychosocial resources directly influence cellular-level biological mechanisms.
Does hair cortisol concentration reflect measurable regulatory biology of the HPA axis in healthy humans?
Abelson JL, Clark SL, Sánchez BN … +6 more , Mayer SE, Stalder T, Liberzon G, Briggs H, Rajaram N, Liberzon I
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41707521 · Publisher ↗
Salivary cortisol measures and hair cortisol concentration (HCC) have been extensively used in epidemiological work to document links between stress biology and health. Though their value as stress biomarkers is well-est...
Salivary cortisol measures and hair cortisol concentration (HCC) have been extensively used in epidemiological work to document links between stress biology and health. Though their value as stress biomarkers is well-established, little prior work grounds these field-friendly cortisol measures in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis regulatory biology that likely provides the mechanistic pathways connecting stress and health. Understanding mechanisms may facilitate intervention and disease prevention. Our prior work linked salivary cortisol measures to adrenal sensitivity and to glucocorticoid-mediated feedback inhibition. Here we utilized a subset of this healthy convenience sample (n = 117) to link HCC to laboratory probes of HPA axis regulatory biology. Over the course of a month, subjects participated in 5 regulatory tests: ACTH stimulation, dexamethasone/CRH test, metyrapone, dexamethasone suppression (DST), and Trier Social Stress Test. They provided hair samples at the beginning and end of that month and six days of saliva samples during it. All-subsets regressions were used to link hair cortisol to regulation. The best model explained 23 % of the variance in HCC (current and past month) using feedback sensitivity (8.7 %), adrenal sensitivity 8 %), and stress reactivity (5.3 %). These associational analyses require formal hypothesis testing in independent samples for confirmation; but adrenal sensitivity and feedback inhibition likely warrant more study as mediators of and perhaps mechanistic contributors to stress-health links demonstrated epidemiologically with HCC. Identifying ways to directly assess them in stress field work may have value. Future studies should also measure hair washing frequency (additional 19 % of variance explained) and recognize that HCC is not a simple way to quantify stress exposure or stress sensitivity.
Hormonal changes, stable attention: Gender-affirming hormone treatment does not alter selective attention to infant cues in transgender individuals.
von Klitzing A, Diekhof E, Briken P … +3 more , Schröder J, Holtfrerich S, Fuss J
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41707520 · Publisher ↗
Testosterone is known to modulate parental caretaking and responses to infant cues. Recent evidence suggests a negative association between testosterone and selective attention towards baby schema. Transgender people und...
Testosterone is known to modulate parental caretaking and responses to infant cues. Recent evidence suggests a negative association between testosterone and selective attention towards baby schema. Transgender people undergoing gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT) experience substantial changes in testosterone levels and they often have or want to have children, highlighting the need to determine whether GAHT changes responsivity to infant cues. In the present pre-registered study, we analyzed whether transgender participants undergoing GAHT exhibit a change in selective attention toward baby schema in a controlled trial (N = 98; mean age = 28.57 years). To this end, we used a computer-based target detection paradigm consisting of infant and adult human images that has been used to demonstrate baby schema effects in relation to testosterone levels. Our results indicate that six months of GAHT had no observable effect on selective attention toward baby schema in our transgender participants. The association between selective attention toward baby schema and testosterone, which has so far only been demonstrated based on endogenous hormone levels, does not appear to be transferable to transgender people, who alter their testosterone levels through GAHT. Our findings extend previous findings by providing insights on previously unexplored effects of GAHT on the attentional system.
Menstrual cycle estradiol fluctuations predict changes in affect and socioemotional functioning.
Sander B, Preston D, Gordon JL
Psychoneuroendocrinology · 2026 May · PMID 41702284 · Publisher ↗
BACKGROUND: Previous research suggests that estradiol (E2) impacts mood as well as socioemotional and stress-related functioning in menstruating individuals. However, research in this area is limited by a preponderance o...
BACKGROUND: Previous research suggests that estradiol (E2) impacts mood as well as socioemotional and stress-related functioning in menstruating individuals. However, research in this area is limited by a preponderance of cross-sectional studies comparing psychological outcomes across menstrual phases that do not allow for conclusions to be made about E2's effects independent from progesterone. METHODS: In the current longitudinal investigation of 23 naturally cycling women, the potential effects of E2 on affect, state self-esteem, irritability, emotion recognition accuracy, and reactivity to both social exclusion (Cyberball) and psychosocial stress (Trier Social Stress Test; TSST) were assessed by comparing outcomes across two times of the menstrual cycle. Specifically, participants completed sessions in the early follicular (EF; cycle days 2-4, when E2 is expected to be low) and late follicular (LF; within the 6 days prior to ovulation, when E2 is expected to be high) phases. RESULTS: Negative affect and irritability were significantly higher in the EF phase, whereas positive affect and state self-esteem were significantly higher in the LF phase. Only recognition accuracy for anger was higher in the EF phase, and this effect did not survive corrections for multiple comparisons. While phase did not impact emotional reactivity to Cyberball or the TSST, rumination in response to Cyberball was significantly increased in the EF compared to LF phase. Main analyses for cortisol and heart rate were not significant; however, exploratory analyses revealed a heightened response for cortisol during stress recovery and a larger increase in heart rate in anticipation of the TSST in the EF phase. CONCLUSIONS: A beneficial effect of the high-E2 LF phase was found for general affective variables. Performance on tasks of socioemotional and stress-related functioning suggest that low or declining levels of E2 may enhance sensitivity to perceiving anger in others, ruminating in response to perceived rejection, and physiological activation in anticipation and recovery of psychosocial stress.
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