Parra RC, Garizoain G, Aranda CM
… +24 more, L Abbé E, Marques C, Gualdi-Russo E, Caldas I, Giannotti PS, Mansegosa D, Ubelaker DH, Rodríguez PA, Adserias-Garriga J, Pinto PHV, Moraitis K, Zorba E, Escalante-Flórez K, Mishra M, Condori LA, Bertrand B, Moyano GAR, Flores CH, Retana-Milán F, Rivera C, Peccerelli F, da Silva RHA, Baccino E, Luna LH
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 42030787
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This study refines a Bayesian probabilistic framework for adult age-at-death estimation based on root dentin translucency (RDT). Model comparison using the Bayesian Information Criterion demonstrated that a univariate mo...This study refines a Bayesian probabilistic framework for adult age-at-death estimation based on root dentin translucency (RDT). Model comparison using the Bayesian Information Criterion demonstrated that a univariate model relying solely on RDT was the most parsimonious and efficient, achieving an R² of 63.60%. The framework was validated through entirely external samples: a Peruvian case study, and samples from Brazil (N = 247), the UK (N = 113), and Guatemala (N = 302). Bayesian updating using data from the Forensic International Dental Database (FIDB; N = 4522) substantially increased the strength of the evidence, with Likelihood Ratios rising from a mean of 2160 to nearly 10,000, elevating the inference to a level of very strong support and extremely strong support. Results confirmed the inter-population stability of the model and its capacity to mitigate the characteristic trajectory effect of overestimation in young adults and underestimation in older adults. This approach provides a transparent, robust, and globally applicable tool for forensic anthropology, successfully balancing statistical rigor with practical utility. Furthermore, it establishes a foundational platform, named BAD, that enables the future integration of additional skeletal traits within an age-at-death estimation framework.
Parlak ME, Gümüşboğa ZŞ, Gümüşboğa E
… +2 more, Yılmaz M, Aydan T
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 42024977
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Dental age estimation plays a critical role in clinical and forensic applications. Because teeth are highly resistant to environmental degradation, dental-based methods remain valuable when skeletal structures deteriorat...Dental age estimation plays a critical role in clinical and forensic applications. Because teeth are highly resistant to environmental degradation, dental-based methods remain valuable when skeletal structures deteriorate. Although integrating ML algorithms into traditional age estimation techniques has improved accuracy, classical linear regression and commonly used ML regressors often exhibit systematic bias, a phenomenon not sufficiently examined in dental age estimation. This study compared the performance of the Cameriere method and frequently used ML algorithms in Turkish children and introduced a modified Random Forest approach designed to reduce systematic bias. A total of 1190 orthopantomographs from children aged 5-15 years (593 girls, 597 boys) were evaluated. Linear Regression, Decision Tree, Random Forest, Support Vector Regression, Multilayer Perceptron, Gradient Boosting, and Extreme Gradient Boosting were compared with the Cameriere formula and the proposed modified Random Forest models. Performance was assessed using Mean Absolute Error, Root Mean Squared Error, the slope of residuals relative to chronological age, and age-group-specific error distributions. All ML methods showed higher accuracy than the Cameriere formula, with similar performance levels across ML models. The modified Random Forest models achieved the lowest Mean Absolute Error values (0.583-0.585 years). Classical ML models displayed significant systematic bias, whereas this pattern was not observed in the modified approaches.These findings indicate that, in age estimation research, evaluating error distribution alongside overall accuracy is of critical forensic importance. Future studies should focus on developing methods that further improve accuracy while rigorously minimizing systematic bias.
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 42019278
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Bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) is performed as part of forensic crime scene investigations to classify and interpret bloodstains in the context of the crime scene. HemoVision is a BPA computer software package that au...Bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) is performed as part of forensic crime scene investigations to classify and interpret bloodstains in the context of the crime scene. HemoVision is a BPA computer software package that automates the documentation, analysis, and visualization of bloodstain patterns. This study aimed to assess the accuracy of HemoVision's beta cast-off bloodstain pattern analysis feature. A wooden rig with a circular swing path was used to create 36 controlled cast-off bloodstain patterns with downward vertical, upward vertical, and downward diagonal swings. Of these tests, six were conducted as blind trials where the analyst was absent for the bloodstain pattern creation. HemoVision estimated the x, y, and z axis positions of the center of swing and the radius of swing, which were compared to the known values. The average absolute errors of the estimated three-dimensional center of swing were determined to be 16.2 ± 6 cm, 27.3 ± 9 cm, 16.6 ± 8 cm, and 12.2 ± 5 cm for the downward, upward, diagonal, and blind swing trials, respectively. It was determined that the x position (horizontal) was the most accurate and the y position (vertical) the least accurate. Furthermore, the cast-off swing path was estimated in HemoVision as a curved tubular shape with a diameter of 3σ, referred to as the tubular swing path envelope (TSPE). In all cases, the known swing path was partially or fully contained within the TSPE. Thus, HemoVision BPA can accurately estimate an area in which the bloody weapon was swung through.
Hofmann AB, Dörner M, Stottmeister F
… +2 more, Machetanz L, Kirchebner J
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 42019277
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Personal history of migration poses an important risk factor for schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD), which are also associated with a higher rate of criminal behavior. To enhance care for migrants, a vulnerable and o...Personal history of migration poses an important risk factor for schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD), which are also associated with a higher rate of criminal behavior. To enhance care for migrants, a vulnerable and often stigmatized group in both general and forensic psychiatry, this study investigates clinical, therapeutic, and psychopathological differences between non-European migrants diagnosed with SSD treated in forensic and general psychiatric settings. The aim is to identify factors that may influence pathways into the criminal justice system and pose challenges for the therapeutic process, rather than directly predicting criminal behavior. We compared retrospectively obtained data of 52 general (GPP) and 104 forensic psychiatric (FPP) inpatients - all with a history of migration from non-European countries and treated in Zurich, Switzerland. To detect complex variable patterns, supervised machine learning models were applied to a training dataset. The best algorithm was then used to assess the predictive power of nine out of 174 possible predictor variables in a validation dataset. Two positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) items (uncooperativeness, poor impulse control) and the modified sum score upon discharge (mean 14.5 for GPP vs. 10.8 for FPP), previous treatments (more frequent treatment for GPP: inpatient 96% vs. 69%; outpatient 81% vs. 37%), medication strategies regarding antidepressants and antipsychotics, attendance to occupational therapy, and failed attempts of expanding patients' freedom influenced the model. The final model yielded satisfactory statistical properties (area under the curve (AUC) of 0.86 and balanced accuracy of 71.9%, including a specificity of 88.9%), demonstrating its strong predictive performance. General and forensic psychiatric inpatients with a non-European background diagnosed with SSD differ in various clinical variables. These findings may inform future psychiatric practices by identifying clinical and therapeutic variables that could support targeted interventions and potentially reduce the risk of criminal justice involvement among migrant patients with SSD.
Cunha AF, Quintas A, Matos APA
… +1 more, Antunes-Ferreira N
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 42019276
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Sharp force trauma (SFT) is a leading cause of homicide-related deaths, frequently involving kitchen knives as weapons. Offenders may attempt to eliminate forensic evidence by burning a corpse, complicating medicolegal i...Sharp force trauma (SFT) is a leading cause of homicide-related deaths, frequently involving kitchen knives as weapons. Offenders may attempt to eliminate forensic evidence by burning a corpse, complicating medicolegal investigation. While scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) has successfully detected metallic traces from sharp objects in skin and fresh bone, its efficacy in burned bone is currently unexplored. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of SEM-EDS to detect metallic residues transferred from sharp tools to bone that was subsequently burned, thereby contributing to the development of an identification procedure in forensic investigation. Ten knife strikes were inflicted on fleshed porcine ribs, which were then burned in an electric muffle furnace at 700 °C for two hours. Sharp lesions were analyzed using SEM-EDS to identify transferred chemical elements. Traces of iron and chromium were detected in seven lesions, with silicon identified in two samples. These elements, absent from the control samples, provided robust evidence of transfer from the blade to the bone. The residues appeared as bright spots with either undefined shapes or well-defined particles, located along the lesion edges. This study is the first to confirm the identification of metallic traces from SFT in bone subsequently exposed to heat using SEM-EDS. Despite thermal exposure, residues persist and remain detectable. SEM-EDS analysis is thus a non-destructive, valuable technique for distinguishing heat-induced bone damage from SFT. Further research with a larger sample and a broader range of implements is needed to validate and extend these findings for forensic applications.
Poniatowski ŁA, Siwińska A, Kwiatkowska M
… +2 more, Acewicz A, Olczak M
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 42019275
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Traumatic brain injury (TBI) plays a major role in mortality rates and is often associated with investigations in forensic and neuropathological fields. New bioassays and data analysis techniques for use in TBI diagnosti...Traumatic brain injury (TBI) plays a major role in mortality rates and is often associated with investigations in forensic and neuropathological fields. New bioassays and data analysis techniques for use in TBI diagnostics applicable to both ante- and post-mortem individuals must constantly be investigated in light of scientific and clinical advancements. The multifunctional and evolutionarily conserved oncoprotein Y-box binding protein 1 (YB-1) has attracted significant attention in the oncology and neuroscience community, because of its versatile roles in gene transcription, DNA damage repair, RNA splicing, cell cycle progression, autophagy and immunity. The aim of this study sought to clarify whether increased levels of YB-1 in biofluids like serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are present in cases of TBI during a population-based autopsy screening. The comparative analysis of YB-1 protein expression in the collected brain tissue through immunohistochemical staining was additionally done. The research involved a total of 40 cases, divided evenly into two groups including individuals with severe head injuries (n = 20) suspected to be the cause of death and control cases of sudden death (n = 20) due to cardiopulmonary failure. Biofluids, including serum and CSF were collected approximately 24 h post-mortem and analyzed through ELISA testing. Additionally, brain specimens were obtained during forensic autopsies and subjected to immunohistochemical staining. In present study, we observed the elevated concentration level of YB-1 in serum and CSF. In anti-YB-1 staining of the frontal cortex, a significant, generalized homogenization of the reaction was observed both within the neuronal bodies and their axons among the head injury group. In the anti-YB-1 staining of the hippocampus, homogenization in some number of its projection cells was observed within head injury group. The coexistent altitude of YB-1 in biofluids with its generalized homogenization image in immunohistochemical staigings seems to confirm the recapitulation of developmental changes after TBI and its associated potential transcriptomic, methylomics and proteomic signatures resembling neurogenesis. The potential use of YB-1 assays offers an interesting and novel tool for investigation and research regarding TBI diagnosis and pathogenesis.
Hyodoh H, Shimbashi S, Maruyama R
… +1 more, Yachida T
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 42019274
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Postmortem imaging has become an essential modality for death investigation, with computed tomography (PMCT) being widely adopted as a rapid and objective screening tool. However, the application of postmortem magnetic r...Postmortem imaging has become an essential modality for death investigation, with computed tomography (PMCT) being widely adopted as a rapid and objective screening tool. However, the application of postmortem magnetic resonance imaging (PMMRI) remains limited in routine forensic practice, primarily due to the longer acquisition time and the need for high-quality images under time constraints. SwiftMR™ (AIRS Medical, Seoul, Korea) is a deep learning-based reconstruction software designed to enhance MR image quality through denoising and multi-dimensional k-space optimization, allowing improved signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) without extending scan time. While this technology is commercially available and used clinically, its utility in postmortem imaging has not yet been reported. This study evaluated the effect of SwiftMR on SNR and image quality in postmortem head MRI using a low-field (0.3 T) scanner. Thirty-three consecutive cases (20 males, 13 females; age 33-92 years, mean age 75.2) were analyzed. T1-, T2-, and T2*-weighted images were acquired using a fixed protocol with a total examination time under 15 min. The images were processed with SwiftMR (v3.0.11.0) and analyzed using ROI-based SNR measurements and visual scoring by three blinded observers. SwiftMR significantly increased SNR in all sequences (T1WI, T2WI, and T2*WI; p < 0.001), while mean signal intensity showed no significant difference except for a slight decrease in T2WI, attributed to correction of Rician/Rayleigh bias. Visual scores for image quality were markedly higher after SwiftMR (7.5 ± 1.0 vs. 3.2 ± 0.8; p < 0.001). In conclusion, deep learning-based reconstruction using SwiftMR effectively enhanced image quality and SNR in low-field postmortem MRI without increasing scan time. This approach may facilitate the broader application of postmortem MRI as a practical adjunct to PMCT in routine forensic investigations.
Harripershad M, Theye CEG, Ridel AF
… +2 more, Stull KE, Liebenberg L
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 42019273
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Skeletal analyses of subadults are lacking reliable methods to estimate biological parameters, such as population affinity. In adults, macromorphoscopic (MMS) traits capture nonmetric cranial variation and assist in asse...Skeletal analyses of subadults are lacking reliable methods to estimate biological parameters, such as population affinity. In adults, macromorphoscopic (MMS) traits capture nonmetric cranial variation and assist in assessing population affinity, but its application on subadults remains underexplored in South Africa. This study evaluated the use of MMS traits to assess population affinity in a sample of South African subadults. The sample comprised of cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) scanned crania of subadults between 3 and 16 years, including black, white, coloured and indian South Africans. Nine MMS traits were examined across population groups. Substantial variation and overlap were observed, with no trait unique to any population. Kruskal-Wallis tests revealed significant population differences (p < 0.05) in six traits, suggesting some population-level patterning. Random Forest Modelling (RFM) was employed to test the ability of these traits to estimate population affinity. The unweighted multivariate model showed moderate accuracy (61%) but low kappa values, indicating limited discriminatory power. Other RFM iterations produced accuracies between 64% and 96.6%, with age-stratified and class-weighted models performing better. Despite these results, overall findings suggest MMS traits alone are insufficient for reliable classification in South African subadults. The observed overlap between groups indicates that craniofacial variation during development is not distinct enough for accurate population affinity estimation using this method. Nevertheless, the significant differences in certain traits and the variable performance of classification models highlight the potential of MMS traits as part of a broader analytical framework. Future research with larger samples is needed to better capture developmental trajectories and refine methods for forensic application.
Victoire A, Halliday G, Singh S
… +2 more, Magin P, Bugeja L
Forensic Sci Int Synerg
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42016379
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Photography supports written and diagrammatic clinical documentation in forensic sexual assault examinations. In settings where specialist photographers are not available, clinician confidence in image capture affects th...Photography supports written and diagrammatic clinical documentation in forensic sexual assault examinations. In settings where specialist photographers are not available, clinician confidence in image capture affects the usage of photography as a clinical tool. A regional Australian health district with multiple sexual assault services across metropolitan, regional and rural sites had previously low usage of photography to support clinical documentation of injury. Smartphones were introduced as image capture devices and procedures were implemented to support their use and the secure storage of images. Training was provided to medical and nursing staff. In cases where injuries were present, the use of photography increased significantly from 13% to 27% (p = 0.0041). Surveys were conducted of clinicians to examine factors affecting use of and attitudes to photography in sexual assault examinations, both prior to and three years after introducing the new devices. Smartphones were generally well accepted by clinicians as an easy-to-use alternative to traditional single lens reflex (SLR) camera photography, particularly for documenting complex injuries that are hard to describe in words and diagrams alone. Smartphone photography may be particularly useful for rural and regional settings where clinicians have a lower caseload and therefore less regular experience with photography equipment, and no access to specialist forensic photographers.
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 42008927
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The decommissioning and relocation of forensic science laboratories presents unique challenges, balancing operational continuity, evidence security, regulatory compliance, and environmental sustainability. This paper out...The decommissioning and relocation of forensic science laboratories presents unique challenges, balancing operational continuity, evidence security, regulatory compliance, and environmental sustainability. This paper outlines the phased decommissioning of Forensic Science Ireland's (FSI) former laboratory and its transition to a new, purpose-built facility in Backweston, Co Kildare. Over an 18-month period, FSI securely transferred more than 100,000 case files and 20,000 forensic exhibits, revalidated scientific equipment, and responsibly redistributed or disposed of laboratory equipment. The FSI decommissioning project was completed without data loss, disruption to urgent forensic services, or compromise of evidentiary integrity. Our experiences highlight the importance of meticulous planning, phased scheduling, stakeholder engagement, and strict chain-of-custody controls. This article identifies key lessons, operational risks, and sustainability measures from both relocations and highlights the need for internationally recognised guidelines to standardise the decommissioning and transfer of forensic science laboratories.
Stoljarova-Bibb M, Kampmann ML, Andersen JD
… +5 more, Børsting C, Erg S, Jepsen AH, Kohtla M, Sadam M
Forensic Sci Int Genet
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42001679
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To conduct forensic investigative genetic genealogy (FIGG), reliable true-positive matches in genetic genealogy databases are required, which in turn depend on the generation of high-quality SNP profiles. This is particu...To conduct forensic investigative genetic genealogy (FIGG), reliable true-positive matches in genetic genealogy databases are required, which in turn depend on the generation of high-quality SNP profiles. This is particularly challenging for unidentified human remains (UHRs) originating from populations underrepresented in such databases. In this pilot study, ten Estonian UHR cases with available blood or skeletal remains were analysed using three SNP-typing technologies: the ForenSeq Kintelligence Kit, a customised microarray (EstGSA), and shotgun sequencing (SGS). The performance of each technology was assessed based on profile quality, database upload success, and match informativeness in GEDmatch PRO™. The ForenSeq Kintelligence Kit generated uploadable profiles for all samples, with quality metrics indicating high-quality genotypes. However, sufficiently close relatives were not identified in the database, which illustrated the limitations of the kit in this underrepresented population. EstGSA produced uploadable profiles for all six blood samples and one skeletal sample, whereas uploads failed for the three more degraded skeletal remains. SGS generated uploadable profiles for nine of ten remains, and outperformed the microarray-based genotyping for challenging samples. Both EstGSA and SGS enabled identification of distant and possibly true-positive matches in GEDmatch PRO™, demonstrating their value for FIGG in underrepresented populations. However, the results underscored the critical importance of profile quality, as distant associations often depend on single shared DNA segments that may be disrupted by genotyping errors.
Forensic Sci Int Genet
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42001678
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DNA mixtures are common in forensic samples and limit the effectiveness of recently developed intelligence tools based on novel sequencing technologies, such as biogeographic ancestry prediction. DIP-STR markers, which c...DNA mixtures are common in forensic samples and limit the effectiveness of recently developed intelligence tools based on novel sequencing technologies, such as biogeographic ancestry prediction. DIP-STR markers, which combine a low-mutation insertion-deletion (DIP) with a closely linked high-mutation short tandem repeat (STR), enable allele-specific detection of minor contributors in two-person DNA mixtures and contain information on population structure. In this study, we evaluated a set of 46 DIP-STR markers across globally representative populations to assess their potential for biogeographic ancestry inference. Using both clustering and likelihood-based assignment approaches, major continental groups remain distinguishable even when the genetic information is limited to the small fraction of markers detecting the minor component of a mixture. These data show that DIP-STRs offer a complementary solution by providing both minor DNA detection and ancestry information in scenarios where standard panels struggle, such as challenging mixed DNA samples. Furthermore, modelling the distinct evolutionary dynamics of DIPs and STRs within haplotypes has the potential to improve both the resolution and robustness of ancestry inference. Together, these findings establish DIP-STRs as a viable tool for forensic ancestry analysis and provide a global reference dataset for future method development.
Cano-Trujillo C, Artuso F, Montalvo G
… +2 more, Chirico R, García-Ruiz C
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 42000391
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The visualisation of bodily fluid stains in crime scene evidence is often challenging due to the characteristics of the fluid, the substrate on which they are deposited, or the presence of look-alike substances that may...The visualisation of bodily fluid stains in crime scene evidence is often challenging due to the characteristics of the fluid, the substrate on which they are deposited, or the presence of look-alike substances that may confound the investigators. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) combines conventional imaging with spectral analysis, enabling the simultaneous visualisation and spectral characterisation of stains. In this study, stains of blood, semen, oral fluid, and sweat, together with seven non-bodily fluid stains and five blood-semen mixed stains, were deposited on nine substrates varying in colour and porosity. All stains were analysed using two hyperspectral cameras operating in the visible-near-infrared and shortwave-infrared ranges. The study aimed to evaluate the discrimination potential of the fused data from both cameras using orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). Both cameras proved useful for the analysis of bodily fluid stains, each offering distinct advantages: The SPECIM iQ was more user-friendly, while the HERA SWIR-2 data provides the chemical fingerprint needed to confirm the nature of the stain, due to the specific vibrational overtones in the shortwave-infrared spectral range. Results demonstrated the visualisation and identification of all bodily and non-bodily fluid stains, as well as their discrimination, irrespective of the substrate. The synergistic value of the visible-near-infrared and shortwave-infrared data fusion is clearly demonstrated, particularly in the analysis of the complex blood-semen mixed stains. These findings highlight the significant potential of combining HSI with chemometric analysis for the detection, visualisation, and classification of bodily fluid stains in forensic investigations.
Jepsen AH, Poggiali B, Jensen MT
… +6 more, Kling D, Zavala EI, Børsting C, Andersen JD, Tillmar A, Kampmann ML
Forensic Sci Int Genet
· 2026 Jun · PMID 41997048
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Shotgun sequencing has emerged as a powerful tool in forensic genetics, as it allows for comprehensive genetic profiles to be generated from highly degraded DNA. The method enables simultaneous access to a wide range of...Shotgun sequencing has emerged as a powerful tool in forensic genetics, as it allows for comprehensive genetic profiles to be generated from highly degraded DNA. The method enables simultaneous access to a wide range of markers, thereby supporting applications such as human identification (HID), DNA intelligence, and forensic investigative genetic genealogy (FIGG). However, the accuracy and utility of shotgun sequencing data are highly dependent on the bioinformatic analysis. In this study, we benchmarked widely used bioinformatic tools using shotgun sequencing data from both high-quality (blood and buccal) and low-quality (hair) forensic samples. Specifically, we evaluated five alignment algorithms (Bowtie2, BWA-ALN, BWA-MEM, CLC, and CLC LightSpeed), four genotype calling methods (ANGSD, ATLAS, GATK HaplotypeCaller, and a custom rule-based approach), and three imputation methods (Beagle4.1, Beagle5.4, and GLIMPSE2). All investigated tools were found to be suitable for analysing high-quality reference samples. However, their performance varied significantly when applied to low-quality (hair) forensic samples. The combination of BWA-MEM, ANGSD, or GATK HaplotypeCaller, and imputation with GLIMPSE2 produced the lowest degree of discordance. The work presented here emphasises the importance of informed bioinformatic tool selection and optimisation, and it provides practical recommendations for analysing shotgun sequencing data in forensic genetics.
Broderius K, Gosch A, Bamberg M
… +8 more, Foley MM, Kamphausen T, Onofri M, Poetsch M, Seider T, Wiegand P, Zieger M, Courts C
Forensic Sci Int Genet
· 2026 Jun · PMID 41997047
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This is a response to the Editorial ""Minimum FSI: Genetics requirements for publishing data on DNA transfer and recovery, given activities" by Gill at el.This is a response to the Editorial ""Minimum FSI: Genetics requirements for publishing data on DNA transfer and recovery, given activities" by Gill at el.
Tzai L, Bozza S, Marquis R
… +2 more, Ntzoufras I, Taroni F
Forensic Sci Int
· 2026 Aug · PMID 41996981
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This paper presents a semi-automated method for the forensic examination of handwritten character loops. The methodology is illustrated and applied to a case study designed to represent typical forensic handwriting casew...This paper presents a semi-automated method for the forensic examination of handwritten character loops. The methodology is illustrated and applied to a case study designed to represent typical forensic handwriting casework, centered on a questioned acknowledgment of debt. An image analysis procedure was performed on both the questioned document and the control material provided by the person of interest (p.o.i.) to extract character loop skeletons and characterize their shape through Fourier analysis. Following this, a Bayesian probabilistic model, as proposed by Tzai et al. (2026), was utilized to assess the evidential value for discriminating between competing propositions concerning the writership of the questioned document. This specific model was developed to facilitate the joint evaluation of handwritten loops across various character types. Further experiments were conducted to evaluate the impact of data quantity on accuracy, particularly concerning misleading evidence results.