The International Journal Of Developmental Biology[JOURNAL]
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200 papers
UNESCO Chair of Developmental Biology: how an initiative that fostered careers in Developmental Biology impacted Brazilian Science.
Abreu JG
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32930351 · Publisher ↗
The UNESCO Chair in Developmental Biology started in 1998, at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. This Chair was a Brazilian-French initiative led by Professor Viv...
The UNESCO Chair in Developmental Biology started in 1998, at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. This Chair was a Brazilian-French initiative led by Professor Vivaldo Moura Neto and Professor Nicole Le Douarin, one of the most inspiring Developmental Biologists of the 20 and 21 centuries. The UNESCO Chair wanted to stimulate interest in Developmental Biology among Brazilian students and scientists by organizing annual international courses on Evolution and Developmental Biology at an advanced level. At the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, the UNESCO Chair established an international laboratory for the permanent training of researchers and the development of research programs in Developmental Biology and related areas. Moreover, the program aimed at establishing an international network connecting Brazilian Universities and research centers in Latin America and Europe. The advanced hands-on courses, symposiums, and workshops promoted by this Chair inspired the careers of many young scientists. They generated new lines of research in Developmental Biology using a variety of animal models. This review does not intend to bring up all the historical events that marked the beginning of Developmental Biology in Brazil. Instead, it will be dedicated to highlighting one specific initiative that inspired a new generation of Developmental Biologists who established important research lines and contributed to the advance of this scientific field in Brazil.
Inducing your neighbors to become like you: cell recruitment in developmental patterning and growth.
Muñoz-Nava LM, Flores-Flores M, Nahmad M
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32930350 · Publisher ↗
Cell differentiation, proliferation, and morphogenesis are generally driven by instructive signals that are sent and interpreted by adjacent tissues, a process known as induction. Cell recruitment is a particular case of...
Cell differentiation, proliferation, and morphogenesis are generally driven by instructive signals that are sent and interpreted by adjacent tissues, a process known as induction. Cell recruitment is a particular case of induction in which differentiated cells produce a signal that drives adjacent cells to differentiate into the same type as the inducers. Once recruited, these new cells may become inducers to continue the recruitment process, closing a feed-forward loop that propagates the growth of a specific cell-type population. So far, little attention has been given to cell recruitment as a developmental mechanism. Here, we review the components of cell recruitment and discuss its contribution to development in three different examples: the wing, the vertebrate inner ear, and the mammalian thyroid gland. Finally, we posit some open questions about the role of cell recruitment in organ patterning and growth.
Mechanisms of vertebrate neural plate internalization.
Araya C, Carrasco D
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32930349 · Publisher ↗
The internalization of multi-cellular tissues is a key morphogenetic process during animal development and organ formation. A good example of this is the initial stages of vertebrate central nervous system formation wher...
The internalization of multi-cellular tissues is a key morphogenetic process during animal development and organ formation. A good example of this is the initial stages of vertebrate central nervous system formation whereby a transient embryonic structure called the neural plate is able to undergo collective cell rearrangements within the dorsal midline. Despite the fact that defects in neural plate midline internalization may result in a series of severe clinical conditions, such as spina bifida and anencephaly, the biochemical and biomechanical details of this process remain only partially characterized. Here we review the main cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying midline cell and tissue internalization during vertebrate neural tube formation. We discuss the contribution of collective cell mechanisms including convergence and extension, as well as apical constriction facilitating midline neural plate shaping. Furthermore, we summarize recent studies that shed light on how the interplay of signaling pathways and cell biomechanics modulate neural plate internalization. In addition, we discuss how adhesion-dependent cell-cell contact appears to be a critical component during midline cell convergence and surface cell contraction via cell-cell mechanical coupling. We envision that more detailed high-resolution quantitative data at both cell and tissue levels will be required to properly model the mechanisms of vertebrate neural plate internalization with the hope of preventing human neural tube defects.
Photoreceptor progenitor dynamics in the zebrafish embryo retina and its modulation by primary cilia and N-cadherin.
Aparicio G, Rodao M, Badano JL … +1 more , Zolessi FR
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32930348 · Publisher ↗
Photoreceptor cells of the vertebrate neural retina originate in the neuroepithelium, and like other neurons, must undergo cell body translocation and polarity transitions to acquire their final functional morphology, wh...
Photoreceptor cells of the vertebrate neural retina originate in the neuroepithelium, and like other neurons, must undergo cell body translocation and polarity transitions to acquire their final functional morphology, which includes features of neuronal and epithelial cells. We analyzed this process in detail in zebrafish embryos using confocal microscopy and electron microscopy. Photoreceptor progenitors were labeled by the transgenic expression of enhanced green fluorescent protein under the regulation of the photoreceptor-specific promoter , and structures of interest were disrupted using morpholino oligomers to knock-down specific genes. Photoreceptor progenitors detached from the basal retina at pre-mitotic stages, rapidly retracting a short basal process as the cell body translocated apically. They remained at an apical position indefinitely to form the outer nuclear layer (ONL), initially extending and retracting highly dynamic neurite-like processes, tangential to the apical surface. Many photoreceptor progenitors presented a short apical primary cilium. The number and length of these cilia was gradually reduced until nearly disappearing around 60 hpf. Their disruption by knocking-down and caused a notorious defect on basal process retraction. To assess the role of cell adhesion in the organization of photoreceptor progenitors, we knocked-down /N-cadherin and observed the cell behavior by time-lapse microscopy. The ectopic photoreceptor progenitors initially migrated in an apparent random manner, profusely extending cell processes, until they encountered other cells to establish cell rosettes in which they stayed, acquiring photoreceptor-like polarity. Altogether, our observations indicate a complex regulation of photoreceptor progenitor dynamics to form the retinal ONL, previous to the post-mitotic maturation stages.
A display of Developmental Biology in Ibero-America.
Del Pino EM
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32930347 · Publisher ↗
This issue of the International Journal of Developmental Biology is dedicated to Ibero-America, and includes research articles from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, and Uruguay. I...
This issue of the International Journal of Developmental Biology is dedicated to Ibero-America, and includes research articles from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, and Uruguay. It also describes the history of developmental biology in several Ibero-American countries. Moreover, the volume contains interviews with scientists living in the region and abroad. Other articles highlight The Latin American Society for Developmental Biology (LASDB), and the International Courses. The main purpose of this volume is to stimulate interest and reseach in developmental biology in Ibero-America.
Roles of cytochromes P450 in plant reproductive development.
Distéfano AM, Setzes N, Cascallares M … +3 more , Fiol DF, Zabaleta E, Pagnussat GC
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32930346 · Publisher ↗
The cytochrome P450 superfamily is a large enzymatic protein family that is widely distributed along diverse kingdoms. In plants, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs) participate in a vast array of pathways leading to t...
The cytochrome P450 superfamily is a large enzymatic protein family that is widely distributed along diverse kingdoms. In plants, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs) participate in a vast array of pathways leading to the synthesis and modification of multiple metabolites with variable and important functions during different stages of plant development. This includes the biosynthesis and degradation of a great assortment of compounds implicated in a variety of physiological responses, such as signaling and defense, organ patterning and the biosynthesis of structural polymers, among others. In this review, we summarize the characteristics of the different families of plant CYPs, focusing on the most recent advances in elucidating the roles of CYPs in plant growth and development and more specifically, during plant gametogenesis, fertilization and embryogenesis.
Early and late stages of Developmental Biology in Argentina.
Sánchez SS, Honoré SM
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32930345 · Publisher ↗
The history of science in Argentina is based on the enormous contribution that the great immigration of the 19th and 20th centuries produced in the country. The scientific and philosophical ideas and the role played espe...
The history of science in Argentina is based on the enormous contribution that the great immigration of the 19th and 20th centuries produced in the country. The scientific and philosophical ideas and the role played especially by Italian scientists who arrived in the country produced a great impact on the different disciplines including Development Biology in emerging universities. The University of Tucumán pioneered the study of experimental biology, making important contributions to reproductive biology and to the early development of amphibians. The contribution of the Italian embryologist Armando Pisanó and the Argentinian Francisco D. Barbieri expanded the field to other universities and research centers located in Córdoba, La Plata, Bahía Blanca and Rosario. Given its strategic position, laboratories located in the city of Buenos Aires reached technological advances faster than others. Indeed, these laboratories saw the evolution from experimental biology to developmental genetics, renewing interest in this area. Currently, Developmental Biology brings together young researchers eager to consolidate regional and global collaboration networks that seek to help solve specific problems such as fertility, epigenetics, stem cells and tissue engineering.
20 years of the "Practical Course in Developmental Biology" in Latin America: from Santiago to Quintay, via Juquehy, Buenos Aires and Montevideo.
Mayor R
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32813269 · Publisher ↗
There is growing demand for learning developmental biology in Latin America and a need for advanced students to interact with world leaders of this discipline. This article summarizes some of the efforts that Latin Ameri...
There is growing demand for learning developmental biology in Latin America and a need for advanced students to interact with world leaders of this discipline. This article summarizes some of the efforts that Latin America is making to satisfy the demand in training young Latin American minds for the developmental biology of the future. I focus on a particular course that has been linked to the origins of the Latin America Society of Developmental Biology (LASDB). I describe the motivations to start organizing this course twenty years ago, its history and setbacks. We tracked back the current situation of former students to find out that more than 90% are still doing developmental biology all across the globe. I describe the state of affairs of the Course in its current location in the CIMARQ campus of the Universidad Andres Bello (UNAB), in a place called Quintay on the Chilean coast and I ask about its future.
Experiences with the marsupial frogs: reminiscences of a developmental biologist.
Del Pino EM
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32813268 · Publisher ↗
This article provides a brief account of the career of Eugenia M. del Pino. Casual events and serendipity played important roles in modeling her career as a developmental biologist. In collaboration with colleagues and s...
This article provides a brief account of the career of Eugenia M. del Pino. Casual events and serendipity played important roles in modeling her career as a developmental biologist. In collaboration with colleagues and students, she analyzed the biology and development of the marsupial frog (family: Hemiphractidae) in comparison with and tropical frogs. The emphasis was placed on oogenesis and the early stages of development. Topics include the mono- and multi-nucleated modes of oogenesis. She described two modes of gastrulation in frogs, gastrulation modes one and two, according to the timing of notochord elongation. She was able to establish a pioneer laboratory for the comparative analysis of frog development in Ibero America at the Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador, in Quito. Her contributions to society include her influence in the establishment of the National Academy of Sciences of Ecuador, and efforts toward the conservation of the Galápagos Archipelago. She is part of a pioneer group of professors that placed Biology as an academic discipline in Ecuador. The experiences of her career reveal that we all face difficulties in our jobs. However, nothing is impossible when we follow a passion. Her work reveals that the key to success is to turn obstacles into opportunities.
Lessons from the Organizer - an interview with Edward (Eddy) M. De Robertis.
Niehrs C
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32813267 · Publisher ↗
In this interview, we talk with developmental biologist Eddy De Robertis about his wider scientific career and the history of developmental biology in Latin America. We discuss the early days of the homeobox, the discove...
In this interview, we talk with developmental biologist Eddy De Robertis about his wider scientific career and the history of developmental biology in Latin America. We discuss the early days of the homeobox, the discovery of the mechanism of the Spemann-Mangold organizer function in embryos, and related Evo-Devo. De Robertis reflects on trends of how conducting biological research has changed over the years and he provides advice for young scientists.
The Latin American Society for Developmental Biology: a successful history.
Wappner P, Zurita M
Int J Dev Biol · 2021 · PMID 32813266 · Publisher ↗
The Latin American Society for Developmental Biology (LASDB) is one of the newest societies in this field. However, despite being new, this society already had a highly important impact on the advancement of Developmenta...
The Latin American Society for Developmental Biology (LASDB) is one of the newest societies in this field. However, despite being new, this society already had a highly important impact on the advancement of Developmental Biology across Latin America and globally. From its conception, the society began with the establishment of courses and congresses at the frontiers of knowledge and with the participation of researchers from Latin American countries and other regions, creating an academic and fraternal environment. The first LASDB congress was held in 2003, and recently, in 2019, the LASDB celebrated its tenth meeting, besides the Pan-American congress organized in 2007. Since the creation of this society and throughout its consolidation, the LASDB has been fortunate in receiving the support of highly prominent Developmental Biology societies, with which it has established links and collaboration that have clearly promoted Development Biology not only in Latin America but also in other parts of the world. At this moment, the LASDB looks to the future to continue supporting science in Latin America as it has done up to the present.
Evaluation of morphokinetic characteristics of zona pellucida free mouse pre-implantation embryos using time-lapse monitoring system.
Kim J, Lee J, Choi YJ … +3 more , Kwon O, Lee TB, Jun JH
Int J Dev Biol · 2020 · PMID 32750149 · Publisher ↗
The mammalian zygote cleaves and develops to blastocyst within the zona pellucida (ZP) in vivo. The presence or absence of ZP may affect the characteristics of the embryo, including blastomere alignment, cell-cell juncti...
The mammalian zygote cleaves and develops to blastocyst within the zona pellucida (ZP) in vivo. The presence or absence of ZP may affect the characteristics of the embryo, including blastomere alignment, cell-cell junction, and compaction. This study aimed to compare the morphokinetic characteristics of ZP intact and ZP free mouse pre-implantation embryos with time-lapse monitoring system. Mouse 2-cell embryos were collected 1.5 days post coitum (dpc), and their ZPs were removed by treatment with acid Tyrode's solution. All embryos were cultured in vitro up to the outgrowth stage at 7.5 dpc. In this study, ZP did not influence the cumulative times from 2-cell to further stages and blastulation. Interestingly, ZP free embryos at 4-cell stage have three patterns of blastomere alignment according to the number of contact points between blastomeres. However, blastomere alignment did not lead to any differences in morphokinetic comparisons. Regardless of the presence or absence of ZP, embryos compacted after the 8-cell stage took shorter time to become blastocysts than embryos compacted pre-8-cell stage. Nevertheless, cell-cell junction proteins required for successful compaction were similarly expressed between ZP intact and ZP free embryos. ZP intact embryos compacted post-8-cell stage had higher rate of reaching blastocysts than compacted ZP intact embryos before 8-cell stage while the outgrowth/blastocyst rate was similar. In this study, the presence or absence of ZP did not influence embryonic development and expression of cell surface glycoproteins, whereas compaction timing may be one of the criteria for evaluating embryo quality. ZP free embryos may become an alternative for overcoming cases with ZP problems in a human ART program.
Glimpses of Dictyostelid research in India.
Begum R, Saran S
Int J Dev Biol · 2020 · PMID 32659023 · Publisher ↗
Simple organisms are preferred for understanding the molecular and cellular function(s) of complex processes. Dictyostelium discoideum is a lower eukaryote, a protist and a cellular slime mould, which has been in recent...
Simple organisms are preferred for understanding the molecular and cellular function(s) of complex processes. Dictyostelium discoideum is a lower eukaryote, a protist and a cellular slime mould, which has been in recent times used for various studies such as cell differentiation, development, cell death, stress responses etc. It is a soil amoeba (unicellular) that undertakes a remarkable, facultative shift to multicellularity when exposed to starvation and requires signal pathways that result in alteration of gene expression and finally show cell differentiation. The amoebae aggregate, differentiate and form fruiting bodies with two terminally differentiated cells: the dead stalk (non-viable) and dormant spores (viable). In India, starting from the isolation of Dictyostelium species to morphogenesis, cell signalling and social evolution has been studied with many more new research additions. Advances in molecular genetics make Dictyostelium an attractive model system to study cell biology, biochemistry, signal transduction and many more.
One of the most significant discoveries in Developmental Biology from an Indian laboratory - Iqbal A. Niazi and the role of retinoids in limb regeneration.
Ghaskadbi S, Nanjundiah V
Int J Dev Biol · 2020 · PMID 32659022 · Publisher ↗
In this short commentary, we reflect upon the fascinating paper by I.A. Niazi entitled "Background to work on retinoids and amphibian limb regeneration: Studies on anuran tadpoles - a retrospect." originally published in...
In this short commentary, we reflect upon the fascinating paper by I.A. Niazi entitled "Background to work on retinoids and amphibian limb regeneration: Studies on anuran tadpoles - a retrospect." originally published in J. Biosciences (1996), and herein reproduced with the kind permission of the author and the Journal of Biosciences. It is fitting that this landmark publication is included in this India-related Special Issue of the Int. J. Dev. Biol., because it sketches the background to what is arguably one of the two most significant discoveries in Developmental Biology to come from an Indian laboratory. Besides being of intrinsic interest, it spawned an entire area of research, one that deals with the role of retinoids in morphogenesis and development generally.
Developmental biology of dispersed pollen grains.
Shivanna KR, Tandon R
Int J Dev Biol · 2020 · PMID 32659021 · Publisher ↗
Professor Panchanan Maheshwari served as Professor and Head of the Department of Botany, University of Delhi, from 1950 to 1966 and built an internationally reputed School of integrated plant embryology. Studies carried...
Professor Panchanan Maheshwari served as Professor and Head of the Department of Botany, University of Delhi, from 1950 to 1966 and built an internationally reputed School of integrated plant embryology. Studies carried out during and after Maheshwari's period from this School have enormously advanced our knowledge of the structural, developmental and functional aspects of embryological processes. This review covers studies carried out at the Delhi School on the developmental biology of dispersed pollen grains which operate from pollen dispersal from the anthers until pollen tubes discharge the male gametes in the embryo sac for fertilization. These events include pollen viability and vigour, pollen germination and pollen tube growth, structural details of the pistil relevant to pollen function, pollination and pollen-pistil interaction.
Studies on tail regeneration and homeotic transformation in anuran tadpoles.
Mohanty-Hejmadi P, Mahapatra PK
Int J Dev Biol · 2020 · PMID 32659020 · Publisher ↗
Anuran tadpoles are excellent models for regeneration studies. The tail, an organ essential for swimming for the aquatic tadpole, regenerates completely following injury or amputation. However, treatment with the morphog...
Anuran tadpoles are excellent models for regeneration studies. The tail, an organ essential for swimming for the aquatic tadpole, regenerates completely following injury or amputation. However, treatment with the morphogen, vitamin A or retinoic acid inhibits normal tail regeneration and induces homeotic transformation of tail to limbs. This phenomenon was discovered for the first time in the Indian marbled balloon frog Uperodon systoma in the Developmental Biology laboratory of Utkal University (Odisha, India) in the year 1992. In this paper, we present the results of morphological, histological, biochemical and molecular (immonohistochemistry) investigations of vitamin A induced homeotic transformation in different anuran species. In addition, we discuss the putative role of fibroblast growth factor 1 during spinal cord regeneration in the tadpoles of the Indian tree frog, Polypedates maculatus, an ideal model for regeneration studies in an Indian context.
Introduction of Developmental Biology at Utkal University, (Odisha, India).
Mohanty-Hejmadi P
Int J Dev Biol · 2020 · PMID 32659019 · Publisher ↗
The paper deals with the background and the establishment of a Developmental Biology Laboratory in Utkal University in Odisha state. It describes the process from a humble beginning with limited facilities into a leading...
The paper deals with the background and the establishment of a Developmental Biology Laboratory in Utkal University in Odisha state. It describes the process from a humble beginning with limited facilities into a leading research centre, initially for amphibians and later for the endangered olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) turtle. Starting from the biology, reproduction and development in many anurans, the laboratory took up research on regeneration, especially on super-regeneration in tadpoles under the influence of morphogens such as vitamin A (retinoids). Treatment with vitamin A after amputation of the tail inhibited tail regeneration but unexpectedly induced homeotic transformation of tails into limbs in many anurans, starting with the marbled balloon frog Uperodon systoma. This was the first observation of homeotic transformation in any vertebrate. The laboratory continues research on histological and molecular aspects of this phenomenon. In addition, taking advantage of the largest rookery of olive ridley sea turtles in Gahirmatha, in the same state the laboratory has contributed significantly to the biology, breeding patterns, development and especially the temperature-dependent sex determination phenomenon (TSD). This research was extended to biochemical and ultrastructural aspects during development for the first time for any sea turtle. The laboratory has contributed significantly to the conservation of olive ridleys as well as the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). Recognition and awards for the laboratory have been received from both national and international bodies.
A brief history of the Indian Society of Developmental Biologists (InSDB).
Niazi IA, Ghaskadbi S
Int J Dev Biol · 2020 · PMID 32659018 · Publisher ↗
The Indian Society of Developmental Biologists (InSDB) was founded in 1977 to promote regular interactions between all those interested in how organisms develop. Conferences and training workshops are regularly held in d...
The Indian Society of Developmental Biologists (InSDB) was founded in 1977 to promote regular interactions between all those interested in how organisms develop. Conferences and training workshops are regularly held in different parts of the country. In addition to Indian developmental biologists, InSDB invites participants from different parts of the globe every year, which allows exchange of ideas with the international community. The Society, which currently has over 400 members, holds meetings every two years. For updated information, visit http://www.devbioindia.org.
Cell population growth regulates dorsalization and caudalization during chick morphogenesis and programmed cell death in lens fibres.
Modak SP
Int J Dev Biol · 2020 · PMID 32659017 · Publisher ↗
The chick embryo ectoblast was examined for a possible relationship between the state of neural competence and cell population growth. It was found that although ectoblast cells with doubling times ranging between 5 to 2...
The chick embryo ectoblast was examined for a possible relationship between the state of neural competence and cell population growth. It was found that although ectoblast cells with doubling times ranging between 5 to 20 h exhibit neural competence, the extent of neutralization induced by the Hensen's node depends on the duration of the cell cycle; the longer the doubling time of the competent ectoblast, the stronger the induction and the greater the induced neural tissue. Neural induction in the competent ectoblast occurs in at least two steps: the first lasts for 1-2 h of direct contact with the inducing Hensen's node graft; a contact for another 2 h with even a non-inducing post-nodal fragment is essential to consolidate neutralization. Hensen's node graft induces mitotic activity in the competent ectoblast in contact. Teratogens which inhibit cell population growth, development and blastoderm expansion in chick embryo gastrula cause concomitant caudalization of the embryonic axis. We confirm Yamada's hypothesis that dorsalization is under positive mitogenic control, whereas caudalization is controlled by a negative cell cycle regulation. Reverse transcripts of chick gastrula mRNA were cloned in pBR322. Colony hybridization with cDNA made against chicken yolk RNA showed positive clones. Thus chicken yolk contains maternal mRNAs. cDNA made against mRNA extracted from stage 10 foreheads was hybridized with RNA from stage 1 to 13 embryos, 19 day lens and egg yolk. The hybridization signal, which was low between stages 1 to 7, increased between stages 10-13 and decreased thereafter. Forehead cDNA also hybridized to yolk RNA. Thus, maternal RNA sequences are present in the early chick embryo. During lens development, epithelial cells retain proliferative activity and their progeny reaching a stationary phase join the fibre area and contribute to the growth of fibre cells. The rate of transfer from epithelium to fibre regulates the rate of programmed cell death of the non-dividing differentiated lens fibre cells.
Leela Mulherkar and the teaching of developmental biology.
Ghaskadbi S
Int J Dev Biol · 2020 · PMID 32659016 · Publisher ↗
The formal teaching of developmental biology in India began in the late nineteen-fifties at the Department of Zoology of the University of Poona. This was due to the efforts of Leela Mulherkar, who on her return from C.H...
The formal teaching of developmental biology in India began in the late nineteen-fifties at the Department of Zoology of the University of Poona. This was due to the efforts of Leela Mulherkar, who on her return from C.H. Waddington's laboratory in Edinburgh, took up the teaching of embryology at the Master's level. Mulherkar began using locally available material to teach how animals develop. They included the embryos of chicken, frog, garden lizard and molluscs, as well as organisms such as hydra and sponges. Her teaching was supported by an active research laboratory that used all these systems to address a variety of questions in embryology and teratology. She used chick embryo explants cultured in vitro extensively in her work. Teaching and research in embryology at the master's and doctoral levels at Poona University subsequently led, in 1977, to the establishment of the Indian Society of Developmental Biologists (InSDB), which is among the most active scientific societies in India.
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