Type 1 diabetes affects around 370,000 adults in the UK, about 10% of all those diagnosed with diabetes. In type 1 diabetes there is a lack of beta cell insulin secretion as a result of autoimmune destruction of the beta...Type 1 diabetes affects around 370,000 adults in the UK, about 10% of all those diagnosed with diabetes. In type 1 diabetes there is a lack of beta cell insulin secretion as a result of autoimmune destruction of the beta cells. However, patients are not affected by insulin resistance, and so do not routinely experience the features of metabolic syndrome that occur in type 2 diabetes. NICE recommends considering further investigation with autoantibody testing or measurement of C-peptide when: type 1 diabetes is suspected but the presentation includes atypical features (e.g. age ≥50, BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2, slow evolution of hyperglycaemia or long prodrome); type 1 diabetes has been diagnosed and treatment started but there is a clinical suspicion that the patient may have a monogenic form of diabetes, and C-peptide and/or autoantibody testing may guide the use of genetic testing; classification is uncertain, and confirming type 1 diabetes would have implications for therapy. Structured education is the cornerstone of care providing tools to allow effective self-management. Following a new diagnosis of type 1 diabetes structured education should be offered within 12 months. Newly diagnosed patients should be offered a regimen including a basal (long-acting) insulin with bolus (rapid-acting) insulin given at mealtimes. The optimal regimen, which should be offered from diagnosis, is a combination of twice daily insulin detemir and a rapid-acting analogue given at mealtimes. However, where glycaemic control is already optimised on an alternative insulin regimen this should not be discontinued.
Anxiety disorder in the elderly is twice as common as dementia and four to six times more common than major depression. Anxiety is associated with poorer quality of life, significant distress and contributes to the onset...Anxiety disorder in the elderly is twice as common as dementia and four to six times more common than major depression. Anxiety is associated with poorer quality of life, significant distress and contributes to the onset of disability. Mortality risks are also increased, through physical causes, especially cardiovascular disease, and suicide. Diagnosing anxiety disorders in older adults remains a challenge because of the significant overlap in symptoms between physical disorders (shortness of breath; abdominal and chest pain; palpitations) and depression (disturbed sleep; poor attention, concentration and memory; restlessness). Good history taking is crucial in elucidating whether the complaint is of new onset or a recurrence of a previous disorder. The presence of comorbid depression should be clarified. If present, its temporal relationship with the anxiety symptoms will indicate whether there is an independent anxiety disorder. A medication review is warranted, as a number of drugs may be causative (calcium channel blockers, alpha- and beta-blockers, digoxin, L-thyroxine, bronchodilators, steroids, theophylline, antihistamines) or may cause anxiety in withdrawal (e.g. benzodiazepines). Substance and alcohol abuse should be excluded, as withdrawal from either may cause anxiety. A new or exacerbated physical illness may be related to anxiety. Medical investigations will help clarify the extent to which a particular somatic symptom is the result of anxiety.
Jont pain in oldder people The prevalence of chronic pain in older people in the community ranges from 25 to 76% and for those in residential care, it is even higher at 83 to 93%. The most common sites affected are the b...Jont pain in oldder people The prevalence of chronic pain in older people in the community ranges from 25 to 76% and for those in residential care, it is even higher at 83 to 93%. The most common sites affected are the back, hip, or knee, and other joints. There is increased reporting of pain in women (79%) compared with men (53%). Common conditions include osteoarthritis and, to a lesser extent, the inflammatory arthropathies such as rheumatoid arthritis. The differential diagnosis includes non-articular pain such as vascular limb pain and nocturnal cramp, some neuropathic pain conditions (such as compressive neuropathies and postherpetic neuralgia), soft tissue disorders such as fibromyalgia and myofascial pain syndromes. In addition to an assessment of pain intensity, a biopsychosocial model should be adopted to ascertain the effect of the pain on the patient's degree of background pain at rest. The disease is often localised to the large load-bearing joints, predominantly the hips and knees. In contrast to osteoarthritis, the inflammatory arthritides typically present with symmetrical swollen, stiff, and painful small joints of the hands and feet, usually worse in the morning.
There is no standard definition regarding the severity of psoriasis, and a number of factors should be considered, including the extent and stability of skin disease, involvement of joints, response to treatment, and imp...There is no standard definition regarding the severity of psoriasis, and a number of factors should be considered, including the extent and stability of skin disease, involvement of joints, response to treatment, and impact on quality of life. Erythrodermic psoriasis and pustular psoriasis are severe conditions and the patient may be systemically unwell and febrile. NICE recommends that four key areas should be evaluated and recorded when assessing patients: severity, using the static Physician's Global Assessment (sPGA); disease impact on physical, psychological and social wellbeing using the Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI); the presence of psoriatic arthritis; and comorbidities. Ideally, patients should be assessed annually for psoriatic arthritis: the Psoriasis Epidemiology Screening Tool is a validated tool to screen for psoriatic arthritis in primary and secondary care. Patients with severe psoriasis should undergo cardiovascular risk assessment at presentation and every five years, or more frequently if indicated. Referral to secondary care should be made for patients with any type of psoriasis with poor response to topical therapy (after 2 or 3 months according to SIGN) and for extensive psoriasis. Cases where the psoriasis is having a significant physical or psychological impact on an individual's quality of life warrant early referral, as do those where the diagnosis is uncertain. Patients with generalised pustular psoriasis or erythroderma should be referred urgently for same-day specialist input. Patients with acute guttate psoriasis who may require phototherapy should also be referred. Children and adolescents with any type of psoriasis should be referred to a specialist at initial presentation.
Nephrolithiasis, or renal stone disease, is common and the incidence is increasing globally. In the UK the lifetime risk is estimated to be 8-10%. On a population level, the increase in stone incidence, erosion of gender...Nephrolithiasis, or renal stone disease, is common and the incidence is increasing globally. In the UK the lifetime risk is estimated to be 8-10%. On a population level, the increase in stone incidence, erosion of gender disparity, and younger age of onset is likely to reflect increasing prevalence of obesity and a Western diet with a high intake of animal protein and salt. Stones can be detected by a variety of imaging techniques. The gold standard is a non-contrast CT of kidneys, ureters and bladder (CT KUB) which can identify > 99% of stones. CT KUB should be the primary mode of imaging for all patients with colic unless contraindicated. In such instances, or if a CT KUB is not available, an ultrasound KUB is an alternative. This has advantages in terms of radiation exposure and cost, but is limited in sensitivity, particularly for ureteric stones. Once diagnosed, a plain film KUB can be used for follow-up of radiopaque stones. For most patients diclofenac is a reasonable first choice of analgesia, e.g. 50-100 mg rectally, or 75 mg IM. Opioid medication can worsen nausea and be less effective, but should be used if there is a contraindication to NSAIDs. A combination of diclofenac, paracetamol, and/or codeine regularly can provide adequate pain control in many cases. Failure of this analgesic combination should prompt consideration of secondary care support. If a ureteric stone < 5 mm in diameter is identified, the expectation is that this will pass without intervention. Initially medical management is still useful for stones between 5 and 10mm in diameter, but urology input is more likely to be necessary as up to 50% of these may require intervention. Stones that are >10 mm in diameter should be discussed with the urology service as they are unlikely to pass spontaneously.
Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is the most common inherited renal disorder that results in chronic kidney disease. PKD has an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. The prevalence is between 1:500 and 1:1,000. Up to...Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is the most common inherited renal disorder that results in chronic kidney disease. PKD has an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. The prevalence is between 1:500 and 1:1,000. Up to 10% of adults with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) have a genetic disorder such as PKD. A family history of PKD may be absent in up to 25% of affected individuals. The most common clinical features are visible haematuria, loin pain, UTI and hypertension. The typical clinical course is a progressive increase in the number and size of renal cysts associated with gradual loss of kidney function (falling eGFR). Risk factors for progression include: younger age at diagnosis; large kidney volume; rapid cyst growth; hypertension; male gender; and visible haematuria. Approximately 50% of individuals with PKD will require renal replacement therapy by the sixth decade of life. PKD is a multisystem disorder associated with multiple bilateral renal cysts, slowly increasing kidney size and progressive chronic kidney disease. Diagnosis of PKD is confirmed by ultrasound showing the presence of multiple kidney cysts. More than 80% will also have multiple liver cysts, which can lead to local pressure effects. Cerebral haemorrhage, secondary to rupture of a berry aneurysm, occurs in up to 8% of individuals. Mitral valve prolapse occurs in up to 25% of patients.
A 30-year-old lady presented to the gynaecologist with persistent vaginal bleeding following insertion of an IUD. At the time, abdominal examination was unremarkable and speculum examination revealed normal external geni...A 30-year-old lady presented to the gynaecologist with persistent vaginal bleeding following insertion of an IUD. At the time, abdominal examination was unremarkable and speculum examination revealed normal external genitalia and cervix. A transvaginal ultrasound showed a normal uterus, normal ovaries and no adnexal masses or free fluid. It was assumed that the IUD had fallen out. Around the same time she presented to her GP with a short history of dysuria, intermittent visible haematuria and recurrent urinary tract infections. After initial management in general practice for 12 months, she was referred to the urology department for further investigation. She underwent flexible cystoscopy, which showed the presence of an IUD within the bladder. Under general anaesthesia, it was found that the body of the IUD had penetrated the bladder mucosa and become embedded in the right lateral wall of the bladder. The IUD was markedly calcified but was easily removed endoscopically as a whole unit with grasping forceps. A three-week postoperative cystogram ruled out the presence of a fistula. At the six-week postoperative review she was asymptomatic and well.
In the UK, low back pain is the most common cause of disability in young adults and every year 6-9% of adults consult their GP about back pain. A thorough history and examination is required to exclude an alternative dia...In the UK, low back pain is the most common cause of disability in young adults and every year 6-9% of adults consult their GP about back pain. A thorough history and examination is required to exclude an alternative diagnosis, such as pain arising from the hip or trochanteric bursa and to categorise patients as having: serious spinal pathology, nerve root/radicular pain or non-specific back pain. Inflammatory back pain is often missed, particularly in the early stages when examination may be normal. The primary features are pain arising in patients under 40, thoracolumbar or sacroiliac pain and alternating buttock pain. Stiffness in the early morning and after rest is a hallmark of inflammatory back pain. There may also be peripheral joint involvement with evidence of inflammatory arthritis as well as extra-articular manifestations such as iritis, psoriasis and colitis. Sphincter disturbance leading to loss of bladder or bowel control should also be explored as it is a sign of spinal cord compression or cauda equina syndrome. Both of these are neurosurgical emergencies and need urgent referral for further investigation and possible intervention. The majority of patients with low back pain can be managed in primary care as the pain will usually be self-limiting. Patients with suspected inflammatory back pain should be referred to rheumatology as soon as possible in order to institute early management and prevent long-term deformity and disability. Patients with suspected serious spinal pathology should be referred urgently for further investigation. Red flag symptoms should raise concerns regarding a possible sinister cause such as malignancy and more than one red flag mandates urgent further investigation.
Osteoporosis is a common condition characterised by low bone mineral density (BMD) and an increased risk of fragility fractures. It affects up to 30% of women and 12% of men at some point in their lives. Two of the most...Osteoporosis is a common condition characterised by low bone mineral density (BMD) and an increased risk of fragility fractures. It affects up to 30% of women and 12% of men at some point in their lives. Two of the most important risk factors are increasing age and female gender, although other common and potentially modifiable risk factors include long-term corticosteroid therapy, chronic inflammatory disease, malabsorption and untreated premature menopause. The diagnosis of osteoporosis can be confirmed by DEXA but this should only be performed in patients who have an increased risk of fracture on the basis of clinical risk factors. DEXA should be considered if the 10-year risk of major osteoporotic fracture is > 10%. If the BMD T-score values by DEXA at the lumbar spine, femoral neck or total hip are at or below -2.5 then the diagnosis of osteoporosis is confirmed. Vertebral fractures are generally taken as diagnostic of osteoporosis, even if spine BMD values are not in the osteoporotic range. Oral bisphosphonates are the first-line treatment. If they are contraindicated or not tolerated then parenteral therapy should be considered. There is evidence that fractures occur in glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis at higher levels of BMD than in postmenopausal osteoporosis so therapy should be considered in patients with a BMD T-score of <-1.5. Although it is useful to have a DEXA scan before starting treatment to provide a baseline value to assess response, this investigation is not absolutely necessary to initiate bone protective therapy, especially in those aged above 65 since the vast majority of these patients will have a T-score of -1.5 or below. In younger individuals where BMD is likely to be higher DEXA is useful in determining if bone protective treatment is needed immediately or if it could be delayed until the T score falls below -1.5.