BMC Immunol
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41572149
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BACKGROUND: Kawasaki disease (KD) is an acute vasculitic disease of unknown etiology, which mostly occurs in infants and young children. Coronary artery lesions (CAL) are an important complication, mainly in patients who...BACKGROUND: Kawasaki disease (KD) is an acute vasculitic disease of unknown etiology, which mostly occurs in infants and young children. Coronary artery lesions (CAL) are an important complication, mainly in patients who are not treated with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) in time or who are resistant to IVIG. Several previous studies have revealed the correlation of certain biochemical markers with coronary artery lesions. AIMS: Our study is mainly aimed at finding the factors that predict the occurrence of coronary artery lesions and affect the response to IVIG treatment so as to facilitate early detection and timely intervention. METHODS: We collected clinical data and laboratory indicators of 480 patients with KD in the pediatric ward from 2018 to 2023 and conducted a retrospective analysis. We grouped 258 patients with complete KD and 222 patients with incomplete KD based on their coronary artery status and IVIG treatment response. We used logistic regression analysis to identify the factors associated with coronary artery lesions and IVIG resistance, and we completed the survival curve analysis. RESULTS: Patients with incomplete KD lacked characteristic clinical manifestations, and the incidence of CAL was higher than that of patients with complete KD (52.06% vs. 47.94%, P < 0.001). The age of the patients with CAL was relatively younger, and the fever duration was longer. Compared with the group without CAL, the white blood cell counts, neutrophil ratio, and ESR were lower, and the lymphocyte ratio was higher. Among them, age > 1 year old, with rash and fingertip hard swelling, white blood cell counts > 13.35 × 109/L, and ESR > 33.5 mm/h were protective factors for CAL (OR < 1). IVIG-resistant patients had longer fever duration, higher rates of coronary aneurysms, and lower serum sodium levels than non-resistant patients(133.80(132.00-136.40)vs136.63(134.70-138.50), P < 0.001). KD patients with coronary aneurysms, corticosteroid therapy, or with the fever duration > 6 days have a higher risk for IVIG resistance(OR > 1), while serum sodium >135.35mmol/L reduces the risk of IVIG resistance(OR < 1). CONCLUSION: In children with KD, age > 1 years old, with rash and fingertip swelling, white blood cell counts > 13.35 × 109/L, and ESR > 33.5 mm/h, CAL is less likely. IVIG resistance was mostly due to the longer duration of fever (> 6 days), lower serum sodium level (< 135.35 mmol/L), and the presence of coronary aneurysm.
Ovarian cancer remains one of the deadliest gynaecological cancers due to its often-late diagnosis and the absence of specific symptoms in the early stages. Beyond genetic alterations, the tumour microenvironment, includ...Ovarian cancer remains one of the deadliest gynaecological cancers due to its often-late diagnosis and the absence of specific symptoms in the early stages. Beyond genetic alterations, the tumour microenvironment, including the vaginal microbiota, plays a decisive role in tumour progression. Recent studies have highlighted the involvement of microbial imbalance 'dysbiosis' in ovarian carcinogenesis, particularly through interactions with the immune system and the modulation of local inflammatory pathways such as Th17-related pathways. In a state of 'eubiosis,' the vaginal microbiota, dominated by Lactobacillus species, plays a protective role by producing lactic acid, maintaining an acidic pH, and preventing infections. Conversely, dysbiosis, characterised by a decrease in lactobacilli and an increase in opportunistic bacteria such as Gardnerella, Atopobium and Prevotella, promotes chronic inflammation through Toll-like receptor signalling, stimulates the production of IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α, thereby creating a pro-tumour immune microenvironment conducive to tumour development. The complex interactions of the microbial flora, mucosal immunity, and tumour cells could explain the association between vaginal microbiota and ovarian cancer. This review highlights these mechanisms and emphasises the potential of vaginal microbiota as a tool for early detection and improved diagnosis of ovarian cancer. A better understanding of this microbe-host dialogue could pave the way for new prevention and detection strategies.
BMC Immunol
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41566413
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BACKGROUND: Pneumonia is a common cause of morbidity and mortality, with severe cases often progressing to complications such as sepsis and respiratory failure. Early diagnosis and intervention are crucial for improving...BACKGROUND: Pneumonia is a common cause of morbidity and mortality, with severe cases often progressing to complications such as sepsis and respiratory failure. Early diagnosis and intervention are crucial for improving outcomes. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been identified as potential biomarkers for various diseases, including pneumonia. This study aimed to evaluate the potential role of miR-6822-3p as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker in severe pneumonia and to explore its underlying mechanisms. METHODS: The GSE153131 dataset from the GEO database was analyzed to identify differentially expressed miRNAs. Serum samples from 70 mild pneumonia patients, 70 severe pneumonia patients, and 70 healthy controls were used to validate miR-6822-3p expression. In vitro experiments using A549 and THP-1 cells were conducted to investigate the role of miR-6822-3p in inflammation and pyroptosis. RESULTS: miR-6822-3p was significantly upregulated in severe pneumonia patients and showed potential as a diagnostic biomarker. In vitro studies revealed that miR-6822-3p promoted inflammation and pyroptosis. High miR-6822-3p expression was associated with poorer clinical outcomes, including lower 28-day survival rates. CONCLUSIONS: miR-6822-3p may be a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for severe pneumonia. Further studies are needed to validate its clinical utility and explore its therapeutic potential.
In the context of adaptive immunity, T cells are activated by professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in a process that begins with peptide-MHC complexes on the APC being recognized by T cell receptor and CD3 co-rec...In the context of adaptive immunity, T cells are activated by professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in a process that begins with peptide-MHC complexes on the APC being recognized by T cell receptor and CD3 co-receptor complexes on the T cell. This triggers a reorganization of T cell morphology, formation of an immune synapse, and the delivery of signals that ultimately culminate in nuclear activation. The interaction between T cells and APCs, such as dendritic cells (DCs), was originally viewed as a unidirectional information highway in which the APC instructs the T cell. It is now clear that bidirectional crosstalk occurs at the immune synapse and that T cells also shape APC functions. The concept of 'DC licensing' originally suggested an instructive role for T cells in modifying DC functions. More recent studies have provided important insight into the changes that occur in DCs during antigen-driven contacts with T cells at the immune synapse. In this Review, we discuss our current understanding of the bidirectional T cell-DC crosstalk that occurs at the IS and its relevance for immune responses and immunotherapies.
BMC Immunol
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41559546
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BACKGROUND: Dairy consumption is a common cause of food allergies, driving interest in alternative sources like yak milk (YM). This study aimed to evaluate and compare the effects of dietary supplementation with YM and c...BACKGROUND: Dairy consumption is a common cause of food allergies, driving interest in alternative sources like yak milk (YM). This study aimed to evaluate and compare the effects of dietary supplementation with YM and cow milk (CM) on immune sensitization, exercise-induced allergic responses, and exercise performance in a murine model. METHODS: Female Balb/c mice were allocated to control, YM, or CM groups, received daily gavage for five weeks before subdivision into exercise and non-exercise subgroups. Exercise subgroups performed an exhaustive running test before tissue collection. Serum immunoglobulins (tIgE, IgG1) and mouse mast cell protease-1 (MMCP-1) were quantified by ELISA, along with clinical allergy signs, rectal temperature, intestinal and muscle histology, exhaustion time, and VO₂max. RESULTS: Both YM and CM induced a systemic immune sensitization, as indicated by significantly elevated tIgE, IgG1, and MMCP-1 levels (all P < 0.05). Following exercise, both milk groups exhibited clinical allergic symptoms and significant intestinal injury, but only the CM group demonstrated hypothermic shock (all P < 0.05). No significant differences were found in exhaustion time, VO₂max, or muscle morphology among groups (all P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: YM provoked a milder systemic response than CM post-exercise in sensitized mice, without compromising performance. Both milks were immunogenic with distinct reactivity, suggesting YM’s divergent allergic profile.
Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy has revolutionised the treatment of hematologic malignancies, achieving durable and robust responses. However, the application of CAR-T cells in solid tumours remains limi...Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy has revolutionised the treatment of hematologic malignancies, achieving durable and robust responses. However, the application of CAR-T cells in solid tumours remains limited by a complex network of barriers, most notably poor tumour infiltration. The key obstacles include mismatch between chemokines and receptors, abnormal tumour vasculature, immunosuppressive cellular populations (such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells, tumour-associated macrophages and regulatory T cells), dense network of cancer-associated fibroblasts and extracellular matrix, T cell dysfunction and exhaustion, metabolic limitations within the tumour microenvironment, tumour heterogeneity and transport limitations related to tumour location. By integrating mechanistic insights with innovative bioengineering and combination approaches, this review systematically elaborates on the factors that limit the infiltration of CAR-T cells and emphasises transformation strategies for improving the efficacy, durability and invasiveness of treating solid tumours.
Wu W, Zhong T, Zhou X
… +20 more, Chen W, Zhang X, Xu H, Tang Z, He W, Wang Y, Chen G, Wang Y, Liu B, Liu Y, Han Y, Lu K, Wang Y, Zhang B, Xiao L, Du Z, Liu Q, Liang J, Li X, Song L
BMC Immunol
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41549264
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BACKGROUND: Brain metastasis (BM) remains a major therapeutic challenge in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) without actionable driver mutations. Radiotherapy combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) may enhanc...BACKGROUND: Brain metastasis (BM) remains a major therapeutic challenge in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) without actionable driver mutations. Radiotherapy combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) may enhance intracranial control through synergistic immune activation. This study evaluated the efficacy of radiotherapy plus ICI and explored prognostic factors influencing outcomes in patients with NSCLC-BM. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed 116 patients with measurable, driver-negative NSCLC-BM treated between June 2019 and December 2024. Patients were divided into two groups: Radiotherapy combined with ICI plus chemotherapy (RT + ICI, n = 56) and ICI plus chemotherapy (ICI, n = 60). Intracranial and systemic objective response rates (iORR, sORR) and progression-free survival (iPFS, sPFS) were analyzed. Prognostic factors, including the prognostic nutritional index (PNI), were assessed using Cox regression analyses. RESULTS: Compared with the ICI group, the RT + ICI group demonstrated a significantly higher iORR (78.6% vs 40.0%, P < 0.001) and significantly longer median iPFS (11.8 vs 7.9 months; hazard ratio [HR] = 0.48, 95% confidence intervals [CI] 0.30-0.77, P = 0.002), and sPFS (8.9 vs 5.9 months; HR = 0.58, 95% CI 0.38-0.89, P = 0.014). High PNI (≥ 42.15) was independently associated with prolonged iPFS (HR = 8.77, 95% CI 2.91-26.47, P < 0.001) and sPFS (HR = 8.46, 95% CI 3.39-21.10, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Radiotherapy combined with immunochemotherapy was associated with improved intracranial and systemic outcomes compared to immunochemotherapy alone in patients with driver-negative NSCLC-BM. Additionally, PNI shows potential as a useful biomarker for predicting therapeutic outcomes.
BMC Immunol
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41549237
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OBJECTIVE: To establish and validate age-specific reference intervals for the peripheral blood systemic immune-inflammation index (SII), neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and lymph...OBJECTIVE: To establish and validate age-specific reference intervals for the peripheral blood systemic immune-inflammation index (SII), neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and lymphocyte-to-monocyte ratio (LMR) in healthy children. METHODS: A total of 2106 healthy children undergoing physical examination at The First People’s Hospital of Zigong from April 2023 to February 2025 were enrolled. Blood cell parameters were measured using the XN-1000 hematology analyzer, and SII, NLR, PLR, and LMR were calculated. The non-parametric method was employed to establish the 95% reference intervals. RESULTS: No statistically significant differences were observed in SII, NLR, PLR, or LMR between genders (P > 0.05). Participants were stratified into three age groups: 28 days to 2 years, 2 to 6 years, and 6 to 18 years. The established reference intervals for SII were 28.60 × 10⁹/L to 298.85 × 10⁹/L, 83.09 × 10⁹/L to 601.33 × 10⁹/L, and 140.02 × 10⁹/L to 657.19 × 10⁹/L, respectively, for the three age groups. The corresponding NLR reference intervals were 0.10–0.92, 0.35–1.88, and 0.57–2.30. PLR reference intervals were 29.39-115.15, 39.93-150.46, and 56.74-172.55. LMR reference intervals were 3.42–13.84, 2.81–13.03, and 2.41–10.56. A validation study conducted on 92 children from the Department of Child Health Care of the same hospital between April 2025 and September 2025 confirmed the applicability of these reference intervals. This indicates that the established reference intervals for peripheral blood SII, NLR, PLR, and LMR in children from the Zigong region are suitable for local clinical practice. CONCLUSION: This study is the first to establish reference intervals for NLR, PLR, SII, and LMR in children from the Zigong region, providing a basis for the assessment of inflammatory diseases in local pediatric populations.
Infection triggers one of the most dramatic systemic responses in the body, and the coordinated activation and function of immune cells requires a dynamic regulation of transcriptomes and proteomes. This is achieved by R...Infection triggers one of the most dramatic systemic responses in the body, and the coordinated activation and function of immune cells requires a dynamic regulation of transcriptomes and proteomes. This is achieved by RNA-binding proteins, which, together with RNA, form ribonucleoproteins. These proteins expand the information content of the genome and determine the lifespan, localization and function of RNA. Moreover, they control when, where and how much protein is produced. They can also mediate cell-autonomous immunity to foreign RNA and to misfolded self-RNAs and ensure the fidelity of the transcriptome by acting as RNA modifiers and chaperones to prevent RNA misfolding. These activities are integrated with gene expression programmes that are induced by the pathogen-sensing mechanisms of immune cells, which together activate, and later resolve, immune responses. Here, we review the activities of RNA-binding proteins in immune cells and discuss how perturbations of their function can result in immunodeficiency, autoimmunity and chronic inflammation.
Intensive care unit (ICU) patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have an increased risk of bacterial coinfections, including ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), bloodstream infections (BSI) and catheter-ass...Intensive care unit (ICU) patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have an increased risk of bacterial coinfections, including ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), bloodstream infections (BSI) and catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CA-UTI). The objective was to investigate the prevalence, risk factors and spectrum of bacterial coinfections in patients with COVID-19 admitted to the ICU. It is a single-centre retrospective cohort study. Data from 201 patients with COVID-19 admitted to the University Clinical Intensive Care Hospital in Bialystok, Poland, between March 2020 and July 2021 were analysed. The prevalence of coinfections, risk factors and causative agents were assessed. Objective comparisons of data were performed by evaluating related studies and reviews. Bacterial coinfections developed in 70% of the 201 patients studied. The most frequent types were VAP, occurring in 47.5% of patients with bacterial coinfections, BSI and CA-UTI. Prolonged ventilatory support (mean duration of 13.3 days in the bacterial coinfection group) and prolonged ICU stay (mean of 15.3 days) were associated with an increased risk of these infections. The predominant pathogens were Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus , with Klebsiella pneumoniae extended spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) being the most frequently isolated pathogen after 48 h of ICU admission, detected in 121 instances. Bacterial coinfections are common in COVID-19 patients in the ICU and are associated with specific risk factors and pathogens. Vigilant monitoring, antimicrobial stewardship and infection prevention measures are needed to improve patient outcomes.
Tan Y, Wu M, Zhai Z
… +9 more, Lu Q, Wang H, Sun J, Wang Q, He J, Yu J, Huang J, Chu W, Lu W
BMC Immunol
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41535734
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OBJECTIVES: Patients recovering from sepsis still face a higher long-term mortality risk. This study aims to explore the association between the systemic immune-inflammation index-to-albumin ratio (SAR) and the risk of l...OBJECTIVES: Patients recovering from sepsis still face a higher long-term mortality risk. This study aims to explore the association between the systemic immune-inflammation index-to-albumin ratio (SAR) and the risk of long-term all-cause mortality (up to 6 years) in sepsis survivors. METHODS: Between January 2017 and December 2022, 461 participants with sepsis recurrence-free status for at least 3 months following the first-episode sepsis cure from Nanning Third People’s Hospital, Guangxi Medical Sciences Academy and the People’s Hospital of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, were enrolled. Participants were categorized into three groups based on SAR tertiles: low-level (< 32.15, n = 153), moderate-level (32.15–80.57, n = 154), and high-level (> 80.57, n = 154). All participants were followed up every 3 months for a median of 36 months up to 6 years. The relationships between SAR and all-cause mortality risk were analyzed. RESULTS: Of the 461 participants, 177 (38.4%) died. Multivariable Cox regression analysis showed that the high-level SAR group had a higher risk of all-cause mortality in model III (P = 0.014). Subgroup stratification analysis revealed that when grouped by SAR level tertiles (with the lowest tertile as the reference baseline for all-cause mortality, a hazard ratio (HR) = 1), each subsequent tertile increase in SAR level was associated with a 21.9% higher risk of all-cause mortality in patients aged ≥ 65 years (HR = 1.219, 95% CI = 0.954–1.558, P for interaction < 0.001), and a 26.1% higher risk in those with cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications (HR = 1.261, 95% CI: 0.925–1.719, P for interaction < 0.001), respectively. Kaplan-Meier analysis indicated that higher SAR levels were associated with lower survival probability (log-rank, P = 0.00025). The restricted cubic spline (RCS) model identified an inverted J-shaped dose-dependent relationship between SAR level and all-cause mortality risk (P for overall < 0.0001). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis demonstrated an optimal SAR cutoff value of 113.561 for predicting all-cause mortality. Decision curve analysis (DCA) confirmed that SAR provided a greater net clinical benefit than existing indicators, such as the systemic immune-inflammation index (SII), red blood cell distribution width (RDW), and lymphocyte to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio (LHR). CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that SAR may serve as a potential cofactor, alongside age and cardiovascular comorbidities, in clinical decision-making regarding long-term all-cause mortality risk in sepsis survivors.
Over the past several decades, cure rates for paediatric hematologic malignancies have improved due to advances in cancer therapy. However, numerous obstacles limit the therapeutic efficacy of paediatric solid tumours, i...Over the past several decades, cure rates for paediatric hematologic malignancies have improved due to advances in cancer therapy. However, numerous obstacles limit the therapeutic efficacy of paediatric solid tumours, including the tumour's immunosuppressive microenvironment and the lack of specific tumour antigens for targeted therapy. Cancer vaccines, a form of immunotherapy, have been under development for more than half a century. Advances in immunology, materials science, sequencing technologies and bioinformatics have revolutionised cancer vaccine development, achieving substantial success in the prevention and treatment of solid tumours. Despite these achievements, the application of cancer vaccines developed for adults is not fully transferable to paediatric solid tumours because of differences in immune status and metabolic capacity. In clinical practice, most solid tumour vaccines designed for adults are applied directly to paediatric patients without modifications tailored to the unique features of the paediatric immune system. Limited attention has been given to designing cancer vaccines with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity for children and infants. This review discusses paediatric solid tumour vaccines from the immune system against tumour to different antigen types of cancer vaccines, illustrating the unique cancer-immunity cycle of young people and some potential strategies for vaccine modification. Additionally, it discusses the application of paediatric solid tumour vaccines through clinical trial data for conditions such as neuroblastoma, brain tumours and sarcomas. Challenges and potential solutions for enhancing vaccine efficacy, minimising side effects and broadening clinical applications are also addressed.
This study aimed to characterise the expression and functional heterogeneity of CD49f across CD4+ T cell subsets in human peripheral blood, and to investigate alterations in regulatory T cells (Tregs) and CD4+ T cells in...This study aimed to characterise the expression and functional heterogeneity of CD49f across CD4+ T cell subsets in human peripheral blood, and to investigate alterations in regulatory T cells (Tregs) and CD4+ T cells in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), together with their clinical relevance. A total of 43 newly diagnosed, treatment-naïve SLE patients and 21 age- and sex-matched healthy controls were enrolled. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were analysed by flow cytometry to assess CD49f expression in CD4 + FoxP3+ Tregs and non-Treg CD4+ T cells. Phenotypic and function-related markers were compared between CD49f + and CD49f- subsets. IL-10 production was evaluated as a functional readout in CD49f-defined Treg subsets. Associations between CD49f-related populations and clinical parameters were analysed, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was performed to explore their potential clinical relevance. CD49f expression was higher in CD4 + FoxP3+ Tregs than in other CD4+ T cells. CD49f + CD4+ T cells exhibited increased CD226 and decreased CD45RA expression, consistent with an activated phenotype. CD49f + Tregs were enriched in the CD45RA-FoxP3int subset and showed higher CD226 but lower GZMB and Helios expression, indicating attenuated suppressive phenotypic features. In healthy controls, CD49f + Tregs displayed significantly higher IL-10 production than CD49f- Tregs, whereas this functional distinction was lost in SLE patients. The proportions of CD49f + subsets were significantly increased in SLE and correlated with multiple clinical indicators. ROC analysis revealed moderate discriminative performance of CD49f-related subsets, with AUC values ranging from 0.640 to 0.786. In conclusion, CD49f identifies distinct phenotypic and functional states within CD4+ T cells and Tregs. CD49f + CD4+ T cells exhibit activation features, while CD49f + Tregs show phenotypic attenuation accompanied by functional heterogeneity that is preserved in health but disrupted in SLE. Increased CD49f expression in SLE reflects immune imbalance and suggests potential value as a cellular immunological marker rather than a standalone diagnostic tool.
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive primary brain tumour in adults, characterised by rapid progression, extensive heterogeneity, and poor outcomes despite surgery, radiotherapy, and temozolomide (TMZ). A subpopulat...Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive primary brain tumour in adults, characterised by rapid progression, extensive heterogeneity, and poor outcomes despite surgery, radiotherapy, and temozolomide (TMZ). A subpopulation of glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) with self-renewal and multi-lineage differentiation capabilities drives tumour initiation, progression, recurrence, and therapeutic resistance. GSCs evade conventional treatments via enhanced DNA repair, multidrug efflux, activation of survival pathways, epigenetic reprogramming, and entry into quiescent states. Moreover, these cells utilise key immune escape mechanisms, such as downregulation of major histocompatibility complex molecules and the secretion of immunosuppressive factors, to escape detection and destruction by the immune system. Evidence suggests that transformed neural stem cells are a likely source of GSCs, with key survival networks including EGFR, FGFR, HGFR, and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling. Their phenotypic plasticity and adaptability to the tumour microenvironment further complicate eradication. Stem cell-based strategies utilising NSCs, MSCs, haematopoietic stem/progenitor cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells can effectively deliver immunomodulators to counteract these immune evasion mechanisms, exploiting tumour tropic migration to deliver therapeutic payloads into hypoxic and infiltrative niches. Approaches such as suicide gene therapy, oncolytic virus delivery, and CXCL12-CXCR4 axis modulation aim to target both proliferative and dormant GSCs. Preclinical studies demonstrate promising efficacy, yet challenges remain, including safety concerns, variability in outcomes, and the limited translational relevance of current models. This review provides a concise overview of GSC biology, resistance mechanisms, and emerging stem cell-based interventions, highlighting opportunities and obstacles in developing effective therapies for GBM.
Alterations in key metabolic pathways are required for tumour development and the adaptation of tumour cells to intrinsic or extrinsic stresses, as well as for the regulation of immune cell fate and immune responses in t...Alterations in key metabolic pathways are required for tumour development and the adaptation of tumour cells to intrinsic or extrinsic stresses, as well as for the regulation of immune cell fate and immune responses in the tumour microenvironment. In particular, the dysregulation or alteration of certain metabolites produced by tumour cells has been shown to be important in creating the immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment. Recent studies have broadened our understanding of the interactions between metabolites and antitumour immunity. Here we highlight how, beyond their metabolic role, metabolites can function as signalling molecules to modulate the behaviours of immune cells and tumour cells. We also discuss potential therapeutic strategies targeting specific metabolites and future research directions in metabolite sensing.