Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42386440
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Artificial intelligence (AI) tools are rapidly being adopted in veterinary medicine. Unlike human medicine, where the Food and Drug Administration has established comprehensive pre-market approval pathways for AI-enabled...Artificial intelligence (AI) tools are rapidly being adopted in veterinary medicine. Unlike human medicine, where the Food and Drug Administration has established comprehensive pre-market approval pathways for AI-enabled medical devices, veterinary AI tools are marketed and deployed without regulatory oversight, independent validation, or post-market surveillance. This article examines the current regulatory landscape for veterinary AI across the United States, European Union, and United Kingdom, and explores the roles of professional organizations in establishing standards through position statements and task forces. Liability and data privacy considerations are discussed, along with practical guidance for practitioners evaluating and adopting AI tools.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42373348
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Antimicrobial resistance threatens animal and human health; companion animal veterinarians play a growing role in antimicrobial stewardship and client education. This article provides practical steps veterinarians can ta...Antimicrobial resistance threatens animal and human health; companion animal veterinarians play a growing role in antimicrobial stewardship and client education. This article provides practical steps veterinarians can take to reduce unnecessary antimicrobial use (AMU) while maintaining high-quality patient care. Informed by the American Veterinary Medical Association stewardship principles, it covers individual and practice-level commitments, disease prevention, judicious prescribing through the "five rights," evaluation of current AMU practices, and building stewardship expertise. Behavioral and implementation science perspectives are incorporated to understand and address barriers such as client expectations and diagnostic constraints. These tools and strategies help advance stewardship in everyday practice.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42342530
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Clinical decision-making, including decisions about diagnosis and treatment options, are an important part of veterinary practice. While it is now recognised that the human brain has access to two main pathways to decisi...Clinical decision-making, including decisions about diagnosis and treatment options, are an important part of veterinary practice. While it is now recognised that the human brain has access to two main pathways to decision making these are subject to bias and limitations of working memory. This article will look at how the principles of evidence-based veterinary medicine and tools using artificial intelligence can be used to support clinical decision making.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42320919
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Feline asthma (FA) is a common inflammatory airway disease with an unclear, multifactorial origin, involving inhaled aeroallergens triggering a type-1 hypersensitivity response and eosinophil activation. Clinical signs i...Feline asthma (FA) is a common inflammatory airway disease with an unclear, multifactorial origin, involving inhaled aeroallergens triggering a type-1 hypersensitivity response and eosinophil activation. Clinical signs include chronic cough, wheezing, tachypnea, and respiratory distress. Diagnosis involves physical examinations, radiography, computed tomography, bronchoscopy, bronchoalveolar lavage, and allergy testing. Key features are bronchial hyperreactivity, mucus production, wall thickening, and airway remodeling. Main treatment includes inhaled corticosteroids, often combined with bronchodilators. Additional options like cyclosporine, inhaled lidocaine, masitinib, and allergen-specific immunotherapy are available but mostly supported by limited studies.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42276961
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Artificial intelligence and machine learning are increasingly shaping the future of small animal veterinary medicine, particularly through predictive modeling that estimates disease risk. This article introduces key conc...Artificial intelligence and machine learning are increasingly shaping the future of small animal veterinary medicine, particularly through predictive modeling that estimates disease risk. This article introduces key concepts underlying disease prediction and precision veterinary medicine and explains how diverse data sources including electronic medical records, insurance claims, wearable devices, and environmental datasets support predictive analytics. The article reviews common modeling approaches, emerging clinical applications, and the role of companion animals as sentinels in a One Health framework. It also examines practical limitations, potential biases, and ethical considerations, emphasizing that predictive tools should complement, not replace, clinical expertise in veterinary practice.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42243033
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Gram-negative infections are common in dogs and cats and are increasingly complicated by antimicrobial resistance. Enterobacterales and nonfermenting organisms such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most clinically relev...Gram-negative infections are common in dogs and cats and are increasingly complicated by antimicrobial resistance. Enterobacterales and nonfermenting organisms such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most clinically relevant, with infections ranging from urinary and respiratory disease to wound and nosocomial infections. Culture and susceptibility testing are essential for guiding therapy, though results must be interpreted in clinical context. Treatment should consider site of infection, drug exposure, and evolving resistance patterns. Effective management also relies on antimicrobial stewardship, addressing underlying conditions, and implementing infection prevention strategies to reduce recurrence and limit the spread of resistant organisms.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 May · PMID 42203542
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Canine parvovirus is one of the most common infectious diseases in dogs, and proper vaccination is the most important strategy for prevention. It is highly contagious and spreads through the fecal-oral route. Intravenous...Canine parvovirus is one of the most common infectious diseases in dogs, and proper vaccination is the most important strategy for prevention. It is highly contagious and spreads through the fecal-oral route. Intravenous fluids and enteral nutrition are vital components of treatment. Additional interventions include the administration of antibiotics, gastrointestinal support medications, and analgesics, all of which are important components of supportive care. Treatment and prognosis will vary based on the severity of illness and the development of complications. Without treatment, the risk for death is high; with treatment, the chance of survival may be greater than 90%.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 May · PMID 42161756
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Companion animal disease surveillance now benefits from collated databases of electronic health records and artificial intelligence. This review examines computational approaches for analyzing unstructured veterinary cli...Companion animal disease surveillance now benefits from collated databases of electronic health records and artificial intelligence. This review examines computational approaches for analyzing unstructured veterinary clinical text, from rule-based systems through traditional neural networks to modern transformer models. Domain-adapted encoders like PetBERT enable efficient disease coding and syndromic surveillance, while generative models offer new capabilities. Topic modeling provides unsupervised pattern discovery. Key challenges include model generalization across clinical settings, privacy protection through deidentification, standardized evaluation frameworks, and environmental sustainability. Strategic deployment of appropriately sized models can advance One Health surveillance while respecting environmental responsibility.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 May · PMID 42150942
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Artificial intelligence (AI) serves as a decision support tool, not a replacement for clinical judgment, when used to interpret radiological images. Veterinarians retain full professional accountability for all diagnoses...Artificial intelligence (AI) serves as a decision support tool, not a replacement for clinical judgment, when used to interpret radiological images. Veterinarians retain full professional accountability for all diagnoses and treatment decisions, regardless of AI involvement. Transparency is essential: if you cannot explain to clients in understandable terms how an AI system works and its limitations, it should not be used in practice. Successful implementation requires following established best practices, including comprehensive team training, maintaining traditional diagnostic skills, and establishing quality assurance protocols.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 May · PMID 42150941
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Computer vision (CV) is an emerging application of artificial intelligence (AI) with growing relevance to veterinary cytology. This review provides a foundational overview of CV concepts and model architectures and summa...Computer vision (CV) is an emerging application of artificial intelligence (AI) with growing relevance to veterinary cytology. This review provides a foundational overview of CV concepts and model architectures and summarizes current research progress in small animal cytology, including blood smear examination. The author discusses trends in scientific validation, industrial implementation, and regulatory oversight, highlighting gaps in transparency and standardization. Educational needs, professional guidelines, and concerns regarding deskilling and workforce impact are also discussed. Together, this review aims to support informed adoption of CV tools while emphasizing the importance of validation, professional oversight, and AI literacy in veterinary practice.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 May · PMID 42150940
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This article reviews computer systems that support veterinary clinical practice using artificial intelligence language models for language interpretation and generation, such as systems for client communication, medical...This article reviews computer systems that support veterinary clinical practice using artificial intelligence language models for language interpretation and generation, such as systems for client communication, medical records, clinical decision support, and clinical practice assessment. It provides guidance on incorporating tools based on large language models into clinical workflows to improve efficiency, clinical accuracy, and provider performance. Key inherent risks and recommendations for the responsible use of this technology by veterinary professionals are provided.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 May · PMID 42150939
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Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) are increasingly being explored and adopted in veterinary medicine. This article provides veterinary professionals with a foundational understanding of AI and ML con...Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) are increasingly being explored and adopted in veterinary medicine. This article provides veterinary professionals with a foundational understanding of AI and ML concepts, including the distinction among AI, ML, and deep learning; the major learning paradigms (supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning); and common algorithms and architectures such as decision trees, random forests, support vector machines, and neural networks. Key terminology, model evaluation metrics, and practical considerations for clinical implementation are discussed. Understanding these fundamental concepts will prepare veterinary professionals to evaluate, adopt, and contribute to the development of AI-based tools in their practice.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42135185
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An objective and anatomical empty nose refers to severe turbinate destruction and can be observed in dogs and cats following nasal diseases or surgical interventions, as evidenced on computed tomography and rhinoscopy. I...An objective and anatomical empty nose refers to severe turbinate destruction and can be observed in dogs and cats following nasal diseases or surgical interventions, as evidenced on computed tomography and rhinoscopy. In contrast, true empty nose syndrome (ENS) in humans involves sensations of impaired airflow, discomfort and paradoxical nasal obstruction, despite enlarged or empty nasal cavities, which cannot be assessed in animals. Accurate grading of turbinate destruction requires a multimodal diagnostic approach. While human ENS studies may provide conceptual insights, direct extrapolation to veterinary patients remains limited.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 May · PMID 42097897
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Artificial intelligence (AI) tools are rapidly entering veterinary medicine, yet clinicians often lack frameworks to evaluate their performance. This article provides a practical guide to understanding AI evaluation metr...Artificial intelligence (AI) tools are rapidly entering veterinary medicine, yet clinicians often lack frameworks to evaluate their performance. This article provides a practical guide to understanding AI evaluation metrics, including sensitivity, specificity, precision, recall, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, and explains why accuracy alone is insufficient. We address the critical role of interannotator agreement in establishing performance ceilings, the importance of external validation, and modality-specific evaluation considerations for AI scribes, digital imaging, and pathology applications. In the absence of regulatory oversight, veterinary professionals must develop evaluation literacy to make informed decisions about AI adoption.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42086413
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This article outlines a comprehensive approach to diagnosing and managing chronic cough in dogs and cats. It emphasizes the importance of thorough history and physical examination, alongside consideration of signalment,...This article outlines a comprehensive approach to diagnosing and managing chronic cough in dogs and cats. It emphasizes the importance of thorough history and physical examination, alongside consideration of signalment, to enable prioritization of differential diagnoses. Diagnostic tools including radiography, computed tomography, fluoroscopy, bronchoscopy, and airway sampling are commonly integrated for definitive diagnosis. Treatment can proceed absent a definitive diagnosis; commonly used drug classes in the treatment of chronic cough in dogs and cats include antimicrobials, anti-inflammatories, bronchodilators, and anti-tussives. Nonpharmacologic strategies are also vital. Treatment can effectively control signs and improve quality of life, even where complete resolution is not achievable.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42062105
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The anatomic abnormalities found in dogs with brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome lead to changes in airway resistance and turbulent airflow. Altered airway resistance leads to secondary airway changes. All these...The anatomic abnormalities found in dogs with brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome lead to changes in airway resistance and turbulent airflow. Altered airway resistance leads to secondary airway changes. All these changes cause airway noises, which may be present at rest or elicited during exercise. Exercise tolerance tests, careful respiratory auscultation, and identification of increased effort respiratory can help to grade brachycephalic dogs into different categories based on disease severity. Other categorization systems and multiple surgical procedures aim to stratify and alter the anatomic abnormalities leading to clinical impairment. Multiple anatomic sites should be addressed based on the anatomic abnormalities.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42062104
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Pneumonia is inflammation of the lower airways, which is most often caused by bacterial infection. Breed-related predisposing factors for pneumonia development include primary ciliary dyskinesia and diseases causing lary...Pneumonia is inflammation of the lower airways, which is most often caused by bacterial infection. Breed-related predisposing factors for pneumonia development include primary ciliary dyskinesia and diseases causing laryngeal dysfunction and megaesophagus. Two distinct respiratory diseases occur in the Irish Wolfhounds-Rhinitis bronchopneumonia syndrome in puppies and recurrent bacterial pneumonia in adult dogs. A breed-related predisposition to immune deficit and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia occurs in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels and Miniature Dachshunds.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42062103
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Respiratory imaging in dogs and cats integrates multiple modalities to noninvasively evaluate thoracic disease. Radiography is the first-line tool but has limitations in assessing dynamic and subtle abnormalities. Advanc...Respiratory imaging in dogs and cats integrates multiple modalities to noninvasively evaluate thoracic disease. Radiography is the first-line tool but has limitations in assessing dynamic and subtle abnormalities. Advanced imaging such as fluoroscopy, ultrasonography, and computed tomography (CT), enhances characterization of airway, parenchyma, and pleural disorders. CT provides high-resolution cross-sectional detail for lesions of increased or decreased attenuation, nodules, masses, airway collapse, and linear patterns, although definitive diagnosis often requires cytology or histopathology. Understanding each modality's strengths and limitations and combining imaging with clinical data optimizes diagnostic accuracy in respiratory disease.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42049584
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The initial emergency assessment and stabilization of patients with respiratory distress requires an alternative diagnostic and therapeutic approach. A combination of initial therapeutic interventions to relieve signs of...The initial emergency assessment and stabilization of patients with respiratory distress requires an alternative diagnostic and therapeutic approach. A combination of initial therapeutic interventions to relieve signs of respiratory distress or stabilize the patient, including anxiolytics and oxygen therapy, along with diagnostics such as point-of-care ultrasound, is often helpful. Definitive diagnostics and therapeutics can then be tailored to the patient once the source of the respiratory distress is localized broadly to the upper airway, pulmonary parenchyma, pleural space, or cardiac structures.