The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH, founded as OIE) is the recognised intergovernmental standard-setting organisation for animal health and welfare. The WOAH mandate is to support its members in the preventio...The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH, founded as OIE) is the recognised intergovernmental standard-setting organisation for animal health and welfare. The WOAH mandate is to support its members in the prevention of the spread of animal diseases of concern, as listed in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Terrestrial Code). Once a disease, infection or infestation is listed, national Veterinary Authorities have the obligation regularly to notify WOAH of the presence or absence of the listed disease. In regard to insects, the scope of the Terrestrial Code limits its recommendations to preserving the health of bees (species of the genus Apis, extended to the genus Bombus and to the stingless bees for one disease). However, it does not include standards to mitigate the potential animal health risks associated with the international trade of other insects. A description of the standard-setting process and a review of the history of the standards for bee health highlight the resources and requirements to expand the scope of the Terrestrial Code to include recommendations for animal health risk mitigation measures for the safety of international trade in insects. Any initiative to develop guidance on insect trade should include WOAH in its role as the sole global standard-setting organisation on animal health and welfare matters. This aligns with the WOAH commitment to a One Health approach.
International trade in live insects involves the shipping of many different species, for various purposes, with a variety of handling requirements regulated by numerous authorities with varying objectives. The diversity...International trade in live insects involves the shipping of many different species, for various purposes, with a variety of handling requirements regulated by numerous authorities with varying objectives. The diversity of factors at play has both created and been subject to a complex regulatory landscape. A review of global production, shipping and use experiences from a range of perspectives has shown gaps and inconsistencies in international guidance and national implementation. Private carriers add another layer of uncertainty that is disproportionate to risks, resulting in variable practices and charges. Many benefits can come from international trade in insects, including pollinator services, control of pests and of disease vectors, and enhanced international scientific research and innovation. These benefits will be better achieved through a more evidence-based and efficient approach to regulating trade. This change in approach will in turn require an improved and widely accepted risk-management landscape for insect trade.
Quinlan MM, Mumford JD, Benedict MQ
… +15 more, Wäckers F, Oliva CF, Wohlfarter M, Smagghe G, Vila E, Klapwijk J, Michaelakis A, Collins CM, Prudhomme J, Torres G, Diaz F, Saul-Gershenz L, Cook K, Verghese A, Sreerama Kumar P
A network of scientists involved in shipment of live insects has met and generated a series of articles on issues related to live insect transport. The network is diverse, covering large-scale commercial interests, gover...A network of scientists involved in shipment of live insects has met and generated a series of articles on issues related to live insect transport. The network is diverse, covering large-scale commercial interests, government operated areawide control programmes, biomedical research and many smaller applications, in research, education and private uses. Many insect species have a record of safe transport, pose minimal risks and are shipped frequently between countries. The routine shipments of the most frequently used insect model organism for biomedical research, Drosophila melanogaster, is an example. Successful large scale shipments from commercial biocontrol and pollinator suppliers also demonstrate precedents for low-risk shipment categories, delivered in large volumes to high quality standards. Decision makers need access to more information (publications or official papers) that details actual risks from the insects themselves or their possible contaminants, and should propose proportionate levels of management. There may be harm to source environments when insects are collected directly from the wild, and there may be harm to receiving environments. Several risk frameworks include insects and various international coordinating bodies, with experience of guidance on relevant risks, exist. All stakeholders would benefit from an integrated overview of guidance for insect shipping, with reference to types of risk and categories of magnitude, without trying for a single approach requiring universal agreement. Proposals for managing uncertainty and lack of data for smaller or infrequent shipments, for example, must not disrupt trade in large volumes of live insects, which are already supporting strategic objectives in several sectors.
While the information on live insect shipments provided in this thematic issue of the Scientific and Technical Review could not be exhaustive, it clearly represents a broad variety of trade, of substantial value, involvi...While the information on live insect shipments provided in this thematic issue of the Scientific and Technical Review could not be exhaustive, it clearly represents a broad variety of trade, of substantial value, involving many stakeholders throughout the world. The contributions to this issue demonstrate that most of the trade in insects is carried out safely and efficiently. The concerns related to shipping insects described within this issue fall broadly into four categories: risks to human, animal and environmental health; delays and loss of quality; refusal of carriage; and high and variable costs. Some opportunities for improvements to insect shipping for diverse stakeholders are shown across these four areas of concern, with specific recommendations and a general call for further collaboration among stakeholders.
Rising per capita consumption, economic growth, and urbanisation, particularly in developing countries, have been driving an increased global demand for food. These changing socio-economic trends, which have greatly infl...Rising per capita consumption, economic growth, and urbanisation, particularly in developing countries, have been driving an increased global demand for food. These changing socio-economic trends, which have greatly influenced changes in dietary patterns globally and, more specifically, have increased consumption of livestock products in developing countries, are expected to endure and to place new pressures on livestock-sector infrastructure and the delivery of veterinary services. This paper summarises current trade in meat and presents plausible projections for the future. It highlights the impact of animal disease on trade and considers the effect of ongoing disease outbreaks, particularly the outbreaks of African swine fever and COVID-19, on current and future trade dynamics. The authors analysed published statistics on the demand for, and international trade in, livestock products at national and regional levels and made projections of the same up to 2050, generated from an integrated model of the global agricultural and food system. The resulting analyses identified patterns of trade consistent with growing populations, increasing incomes and changing diets in developing countries. The analyses also pointed to slow expansion of livestock production, and the impacts of countries' disease status on livestock trade. For most of the livestock products analysed, economic model projections indicate increased consolidation of production and exports among a few countries. Marked increases in the trade in livestock products suggest a changing role for Veterinary Services in facilitating trade and extension in the years to come.
Climate change due to increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is one of the most pressing issues facing society on a global scale. The growth of GHG emissions between 2000 and 2010 was higher than in each of the previo...Climate change due to increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is one of the most pressing issues facing society on a global scale. The growth of GHG emissions between 2000 and 2010 was higher than in each of the previous three decades, and each of the past four decades has been successively warmer than any preceding decades since 1850. Continued GHG emissions will cause further warming and changes in the climate system. Climate change affects livestock production in multiple ways, both directly and indirectly. Many of the impacts on the livestock sector result from increasing frequency and magnitude of weather and climate extremes such as droughts, flash floods, untimely rains, frost, hail and severe storms. This article describes some of the most vulnerable disaster communities in Asia, Africa, Australia, Europe and South America. It then describes the importance of meteorological information provided by national Meteorological and Hydrological Services to help Veterinary Services support sustainable management of livestock in vulnerable pastoral communities.
The world is facing a broad range of challenges related to agriculture, and particularly the livestock sector, including threats to productivity, the natural environment and human health. While much research has been con...The world is facing a broad range of challenges related to agriculture, and particularly the livestock sector, including threats to productivity, the natural environment and human health. While much research has been conducted into potential risks and their drivers, the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated how governments can be affected by shocks that are to some extent predictable but for which they are often ill prepared. Policy seeks to anticipate and also influence the future and, as policy-makers, national Veterinary Services have an important role in both anticipating and influencing the future of their countries and the world. In the first part of this paper, the author summarises a wide range of Foresight methodologies and tools relevant to, or used by, Veterinary Services or veterinary researchers. This discussion is followed by an example of the adaptation and application of a Foresight framework tailored specifically to Veterinary Services. Finally, the author draws conclusions on Foresight methodologies useful to Veterinary Services.
Climate change due to increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is one of the most pressing issues facing society on a global scale. The growth of GHG emissions between 2000 and 2010 was higher than in each of the previo...Climate change due to increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is one of the most pressing issues facing society on a global scale. The growth of GHG emissions between 2000 and 2010 was higher than in each of the previous three decades, and each of the past four decades has been successively warmer than any preceding decades since 1850. Continued GHG emissions will cause further warming and changes in the climate system. Climate change affects livestock production in multiple ways, both directly and indirectly. Many of the impacts on the livestock sector result from increasing frequency and magnitude of weather and climate extremes such as droughts, flash floods, untimely rains, frost, hail and severe storms. This article describes some of the most vulnerable disaster communities in Asia, Africa, Australia, Europe and South America. It then describes the importance of meteorological information provided by national Meteorological and Hydrological Services to help Veterinary Services support sustainable management of livestock in vulnerable pastoral communities.
National Veterinary Services (NVS) play a crucial role in animal health, production and welfare. They are also intimately involved with safeguarding global health security and the health of the planet. Climate change is...National Veterinary Services (NVS) play a crucial role in animal health, production and welfare. They are also intimately involved with safeguarding global health security and the health of the planet. Climate change is just one of the nine planetary boundaries (PBs), i.e. Earth system processes, that can be used to monitor the vital signs of our living planet. In this paper, the authors identify the positive and negative impacts of humaninduced management of aquatic and terrestrial animals in relation to these PBs. In the context of NVS, the authors provide an overview of the real and potential impacts of NVS policies on Earth systems and offer suggestions as to how new sustainability paradigms may assist with reviewing and revising NVS mandates and facilitating stakeholder engagement. Opportunities are proposed for the World Organisation for Animal Health to contribute to the global debate on the role of aquatic and terrestrial animal agriculture and wildlife in sustainable development. In addition, the paper suggests that a wider debate is required in relation to recent significant increases in domestic animal populations and PBs. Intersectoral and interdisciplinary collaboration are required to achieve the transformation of the framework in which NVS operate. While such transformations cannot be driven by the veterinary profession alone, veterinarians have proven very effective operators in the One Health arena. By building on these intersectoral linkages, it will be possible for our profession and NVS to actively contribute to the crucial discussions and transformations required to pull Earth system metrics back within safe boundaries.
The pace of digital disruption over the past few years has been spectacular, transforming every sector of the economy, including animal production, health and welfare. This paper reviews some advanced digital technologie...The pace of digital disruption over the past few years has been spectacular, transforming every sector of the economy, including animal production, health and welfare. This paper reviews some advanced digital technologies that may shape the future of Veterinary Services. These technologies are all data driven and are illustrated by three examples that fall under the following categories: a) wireless and mobile technologies for animal health monitoring, disease surveillance, reporting and information sharing; b) advanced data-processing technologies, such as big data and data analytics used to detect patterns, make predictions, find correlations and other information; and c) promising technologies such as blockchain applications, used for effective and efficient management of various input supply chains. The authors briefly discuss current challenges to increasing the use of these technologies in the animal health sector, along with some implications for Veterinary Services. Digital technologies will have a profound effect on how animal health services are delivered and how animal health systems are managed. It is therefore crucial for Veterinary Services to be proactive and adapt to the ongoing digital transformation. Investment in new technologies and preparing the current and future veterinary workforce with the necessary digital skills and knowledge to stay up to date and at the centre of digital innovation in animal health should be a priority for the years to come.
Animal health services play an essential role in supporting livestock production, with the potential to address the challenges of hunger, poverty, health, social justice and environmental health as part of the path towar...Animal health services play an essential role in supporting livestock production, with the potential to address the challenges of hunger, poverty, health, social justice and environmental health as part of the path towards the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) defined in the United Nations, 2030 Agenda. However, the provision of animal health services remains chronically underfunded. Although the aspiration that ‘no one will be left behind' is core to the SDG agenda, animal health service provision still fails to meet the basic needs of many of the poorest livestock owners. This review draws largely on experience from Tanzania and highlights the obstacles to equitable provision of animal health services, as well as identifying opportunities for improvement. Delivery models that rely on owners paying for services, whether through the private sector or public?private partnerships, can be effective for diseases that are of clear economic importance to animal keepers, particularly in more market-orientated production systems, but are currently constrained by issues of access, affordability, availability and quality. Substantial challenges remain when attempting to control diseases that exert a major burden on animal or human health but are less well recognised, as well as in the delivery of veterinary public health or other public good interventions. Here, the authors propose solutions that focus on: improving awareness of the potential for animal health services to address the SDGs, particularly those concerning public and environmental health; linking this more explicitly with advocacy for increased investment; ensuring that the voices of stakeholders are heard, particularly those of the rural poor; and embracing a cross-cutting and expanded vision for animal health services to support more adaptive development of livestock systems.
Animal welfare is an essential component of the future of sustainable agriculture and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. There is growing global recognition of the importance of animal welfare, which must...Animal welfare is an essential component of the future of sustainable agriculture and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. There is growing global recognition of the importance of animal welfare, which must always be considered as part of the decision-making around food and nutrition security. Veterinary Services, encompassing public and private veterinarians and para-veterinarians, are custodians of animal welfare and key players in future actions to improve it. The welfare of animals is everyone's responsibility, from the individual farmer and practitioner to policymakers at the national and intergovernmental level. In this paper, after providing background information about current animal welfare issues and identifying animal welfare risks, the authors make a number of recommendations for action at the institutional and individual level. They do so because while the former is essential to generate change at scale and effective resourcing, the latter can create immediate action at a local level and drive change from the ground up. Without coordinated action from Veterinary Services, opportunities to improve animal welfare, alongside human and environmental health and well-being, may very well be lost, and animal welfare may fail to improve or even be at risk of decline.
Growth in the livestock sector is associated with heightened risk for epidemic diseases. The increasing spillover of new diseases from wildlife is being driven by wide-scale anthropogenic changes allowing for more freque...Growth in the livestock sector is associated with heightened risk for epidemic diseases. The increasing spillover of new diseases from wildlife is being driven by wide-scale anthropogenic changes allowing for more frequent and closer wildlife-human and wildlife-livestock contacts. An increasing number of epidemics in livestock are associated with rapid transition of livestock systems from extensive to intensive, and local to global movement of livestock and their products through value chain networks with weak biosecurity. Major livestock epidemics in the past two decades have had substantial economic impacts, and the COVID-19 pandemic highlights the devastating socio-economic consequences that spillovers can have when not identified and controlled early in the process of emergence. This highlights the importance of Veterinary Services to integrated, whole-of-society efforts to control infectious diseases in animals. Emphasis within Veterinary Services must be placed on prevention and preparedness. The authors suggest four areas for continued improvement in Veterinary Services to meet this challenge. These are a) continued development of staff capacity for risk assessment and value chain analysis, together with improved policies and communication, b) appropriate adaptation of approaches to prevention and control in resource-poor settings, c) improved multi-sectoral and transboundary cooperation, which enables the sharing of resources and expertise, and d) systematic approaches that enable Veterinary Services to influence decisionmaking for trade, markets, business, public health, and livelihood development at the national and regional levels.
Disparities in nutrition security and the harmful health effects of malnutrition are pronounced as the world's population continues to rise and nutrition-related development falls short of targets. This paper discusses t...Disparities in nutrition security and the harmful health effects of malnutrition are pronounced as the world's population continues to rise and nutrition-related development falls short of targets. This paper discusses the importance of animal source foods (ASFs) in global nutrition security and the roles that Veterinary Services play in enhancing availability of and equitable access to ASFs. The first section of this paper reviews the nutritional value of ASFs and disparities in global consumption patterns. It also presents the biological basis for ASF-derived nutrition, its importance throughout the human lifecycle and the negative effects of both under- and overnutrition. The second section discusses the various roles of Veterinary Services along the pathway from terrestrial livestock production to positive outcomes in nutrition security. It addresses the importance of Veterinary Services in improving production efficiencies in extensive livestock systems as well as the contributions of Veterinary Services to integrated approaches for improved human and livestock health and security. Gaps between ASF availability and nutrition security are then discussed along with the importance of closing these gaps by targeting smallholders and women. The paper concludes with recommendations for incorporating targeted, nutrition-sensitive approaches in Veterinary Services to help populations vulnerable to nutrition insecurity gain more equitable access to ASFs as part of sustainable healthy diets.
The emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global public health issue, but it also jeopardises the effectiveness of antimicrobials as a means of curing infections in animals that threaten their health, we...The emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global public health issue, but it also jeopardises the effectiveness of antimicrobials as a means of curing infections in animals that threaten their health, welfare and productivity. Several reports show that infections in humans caused by antimicrobial-resistant pathogens may be linked to antimicrobial use (AMU) and AMR in food-producing animals; however, to what extent this happens is unknown. Use of antimicrobials drives the emergence of AMR, therefore, their extensive over-use and misuse in livestock is of concern. Robust AMU and AMR data are important to monitor the progress of interventions aiming to reduce AMR in the livestock sector. However, not all countries have complete data on antibiotic sales or use, so our current knowledge of global AMU is primarily based on modelling estimates. Antimicrobial resistance prevalence data are limited, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, but in some high-income regions fairly robust data are available. It should also be noted that monitoring guidelines and protocols are available to provide globally harmonised AMR data. Using antimicrobials rationally and not using them for disease prevention purposes is key to reducing AMU. To ensure that these drugs are used appropriately we must ensure that: a) veterinary services are accessible and affordable for farmers; b) antibiotics are only sold on prescription; c) veterinarians earn no revenue linked to the sale or prescription of antibiotics; d) veterinarians have substantial skills in preventive medicine (good animal husbandry, efficient biosecurity and vaccinology); and e) the benefits of preventive measures must appeal to farmers so that they are willing to pay for them.
The use of institutional risk assessment and management, considered best practice in management sciences, is not systematically used across public Veterinary Services. Chief Veterinary Officers and their teams often lack...The use of institutional risk assessment and management, considered best practice in management sciences, is not systematically used across public Veterinary Services. Chief Veterinary Officers and their teams often lack exposure to or training in the application of this type of institutional risk assessment. This paper describes the essential elements of institutional risk assessment and how it might be applied within the context of Veterinary Services.
Animal health risk assessment is one of the key tasks of Veterinary Services. There are well-established protocols created by the World Organisation for Animal Health and Codex Alimentarius Commission for assessing risk....Animal health risk assessment is one of the key tasks of Veterinary Services. There are well-established protocols created by the World Organisation for Animal Health and Codex Alimentarius Commission for assessing risk. They cover terrestrial and aquatic animals and zoonotic infectious diseases, food safety, and the environment, taking into consideration the connections between them. Significant effort has been made in developing methods to estimate the probability, and consequences, of infectious disease incursion in diseasefree countries through legal or illegal trade or via the movements of insects and wildlife. Additional efforts have been made in the design of prevention strategies and contingency plans. Concerns about possible pandemics of avian influenza continue to be important motivation for monitoring viruses for selection of vaccine candidate strains. The recent COVID-19 pandemic was zoonotic in nature and caused extensive disruption throughout the world. Tools are becoming available for quantitative food safety risk assessments for bacteria, toxins, viruses, and antimicrobial resistance genes, including tools that allow simulations for the selection of effective control options. Applying participatory techniques facilitates the conduct of risk analysis in low- and middle-income countries. In internationally established frameworks, risk assessment is the first step towards elimination of important infectious diseases in endemic countries and it is an important contributor to the reduction of disease risks. Quantitative and qualitative socio-economic and behavioural studies have been developed to design risk management options that are acceptable and sustainable for actors throughout value chains.
The veterinary profession has time and again successfully adapted to new challenges and developments, with considerable evolution of the skills needed. Different contexts, production systems and societal requirements con...The veterinary profession has time and again successfully adapted to new challenges and developments, with considerable evolution of the skills needed. Different contexts, production systems and societal requirements continue to shape the profession, resulting in an increasing demand for specialisation, interdisciplinary collaboration along value chains, and preparedness for the omnipresent risk of emerging diseases. To keep up with changes, new insights, advances in research and novel ways to address challenges, continuing professional development (CPD) and the adaptation and updating of the veterinary curriculum have been essential to maintain and enhance the quality and performance of Veterinary Services. This paper reviews actors involved in the provision of Veterinary Services and discusses how vital CPD is in addressing current and future challenges, by focusing on veterinarians and allied veterinary professionals. The authors examine how providers of CPD contribute to the system and how the internal and external factors of a cohort or individual affect the quality and impact of capacity development. The paper further examines the landscape of veterinary CPD in terms of organisational structures, pedagogical approaches, the transition from input- to outcome-based learning, modern delivery tools, and the demands on the different actors involved in the delivery of animal health services. The authors conclude that CPD is essential if the quality of Veterinary Services is to keep pace with the ever-increasing and evolving demands of the 21st century. A CPD programme should therefore be constructed in a way that is tailored to the needs of veterinary professionals and to the requirements of their workplace, whether they work with animal keepers, livestock value chains, national governments or international regulatory bodies. An optimised and successful veterinary sector requires an evidencebased CPD programme that keeps those professionals who are involved in the delivery of animal health services both competent and relevant in a changing world.