Economics And Human Biology[JOURNAL]
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200 papers
Baby bump? Birth month, family income, and early childhood development.
Engel K, Marcotte DE
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38944004 · Publisher ↗
Federal and state laws in the U.S. provide families with babies born just before the end of the year with thousands of dollars in tax savings. Because this income windfall is realized during the first few months of a new...
Federal and state laws in the U.S. provide families with babies born just before the end of the year with thousands of dollars in tax savings. Because this income windfall is realized during the first few months of a newborn's life, we assess whether babies born in December experience developmental advantages in early childhood compared to those born right after the New Year. Using data from the Child Development Supplement of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and the Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we implement a regression discontinuity design that exploits variation in birth timing. We first illustrate that the tax savings received by families with end of year babies are substantial. We then show that while children born in December have a weight disadvantage at birth compared to those born in January, they have an average weight-gain advantage of between 0.7 and 1.5 pounds (0.08-0.17 standard deviations) during subsequent follow-up interviews. We also find that end-of-year babies reach early developmental milestones faster, but exhibit no advantage in memory, word recognition, or applied problem solving. This end-of-year birth developmental advantage is consistent with the identified tax savings from end-of-year births.
Coupling and decoupling of ancestral linkages and current cross-border economic activities: Genetics and policy.
Chakraborty S, Wang MG, Wong MCS
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38908266 · Publisher ↗
This paper studies the potential link between the biological evolution of populations and present-day economic interactions by estimating the correlation of shared ancestry among populations with cross-border capital and...
This paper studies the potential link between the biological evolution of populations and present-day economic interactions by estimating the correlation of shared ancestry among populations with cross-border capital and human flows. To this end, we employ the new concept of genetic distance, based on (dis)similarity of neutral gene alleles, to quantify shared ancestry. We then incorporate the genetic distance measure into an augmented gravity model, traditionally used to analyze the effect of geographical distance on bilateral exchange. Our analysis focuses on bilateral foreign direct investment (FDI) and migration across 135 countries and we use both linear regression techniques as well as the Poisson Pseudo-Maximum Likelihood Estimator to account for any non-linearities in the model. Our results show that a 1% increase in genetic distance reduces FDI flows by 0.08% while controlling for other distance constructs and factors associated with global capital and human movement. Genetic distance also has a negative effect on migration, where a 1% increase in genetic distance reduces migration flows by 0.22%, with all other things remaining constant. Our study, therefore, links shared ancestry with economic behavior, showing how historical connections are associated with current economic exchanges among nations. Additionally, recognizing that ancestral ties are outside human control, we examine policy measures that help nations overcome such distance barriers. Our findings show that strengthening a nation's institutional quality and adherence to the rule of law can effectively mitigate any negative correlation of distance constructs with economic exchanges. These insights suggest that prudent policies to foster a stable business environment are essential for any nation to attract FDI and human capital, even from geographically or genetically distant nations.
Long-term effects of early life rainfall shocks on foundational cognitive skills: Evidence from Peru.
Pazos N, Favara M, Sánchez A … +2 more , Scott D, Behrman J
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38879898 · Publisher ↗
Global warming is changing precipitation patterns, particularly harming communities in low-and-middle income countries (LMICs). Whilst the long-term effects of being exposed to rainfall shocks early in life on school-ach...
Global warming is changing precipitation patterns, particularly harming communities in low-and-middle income countries (LMICs). Whilst the long-term effects of being exposed to rainfall shocks early in life on school-achievement tests are well-established, there is little population-based evidence from LMICs on the mechanisms through which these shocks operate. Executive functions (EFs) are key for children's learning abilities. This paper analyses the effects of early exposure to rainfall shocks on four foundational cognitive skills (FCSs), including EFs that have been found to be key predictors of educational success. These skills were measured via a series of tablet-based tasks administered in Peru as part of the Young Lives longitudinal study (YLS). We combine the YLS data with gridded data on monthly precipitation to generate monthly, community-level rainfall shock estimates. The key identification strategy relies on temporary climatic shocks being uncorrelated with other latent determinants of FCSs development. Our results show significant negative effects of early life exposure to rainfall shocks on EFs-especially, on working memory-measured in later childhood. We also find evidence of rainfall shocks decreasing households' abilities to invest in human capital, which may affect both FCSs and domain-specific test scores. Finally, there is suggestive, but not conclusive, evidence that a conditional-cash-transfer program providing poor households with additional financial resources might partially offset the effects of the rainfall shocks.
Mother's age at marriage and gender-differential in child schooling: Evidence from Pakistan.
Ashok S, Mughal M, Javed R
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38875751 · Publisher ↗
In this study, we provide empirical evidence in support of intergenerational effects of women's marriage age on girl-specific child education outcomes using a nationally representative household survey of 24,809 househol...
In this study, we provide empirical evidence in support of intergenerational effects of women's marriage age on girl-specific child education outcomes using a nationally representative household survey of 24,809 households from Pakistan. Our key findings are four-fold: First, we find that mother's age at marriage has no girl-specific impact on the education of children of school going age in terms of school enrolment, type of school (public/private) or education expenditure. However, there is a positive effect of delaying mother's marriage on girls in terms of relative grade progression and primary school attainment, implying that late-marrying mothers are more likely to transfer their human capital advantages/disadvantages to the daughters. Second, the impact does not depend on whether the child is firstborn or later-order, youngest child or with no siblings. Sex of the previous child does not affect the relationship either. Third, the beneficial impact of mother's marriage age on girls' education is visible only in the cohort of women who got married in 2000 or later. Fourth, father's marriage age is significantly associated with an increase in daughters' school enrolment and primary completion. The impact of smaller spousal age difference is also positive. These findings are robust to the use of empirical strategies and specifications that address potential endogeneity, collider bias, recall bias, sample selection and confounding factors. These findings suggest that delay in women's marriage is helping to narrow down gender disparities in education. The findings underscore the need to promote social and behavioural changes that encourage later marriages.
Explaining adverse cholesterol levels and distinct gender patterns in an Indonesian population compared with the U.S.
Lawton R, Frankenberg E, Seeman T … +3 more , Karlamangla A, Sumantri C, Thomas D
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38861883 · Full text
Cardiovascular disease is among the most common causes of death around the world. As rising incomes in low and middle-income countries are accompanied by increased obesity, the burden of disease shifts towards non-commun...
Cardiovascular disease is among the most common causes of death around the world. As rising incomes in low and middle-income countries are accompanied by increased obesity, the burden of disease shifts towards non-communicable diseases, and lower-income settings make up a growing share of cardiovascular disease deaths. Comparative investigation of the roles of body composition, behavioral and socioeconomic factors across countries can shed light on both the biological and social drivers of cardiovascular disease more broadly. Comparing rigorously-validated measures of HDL and non-HDL cholesterol among adults in the United States and in Aceh, Indonesia, we show that Indonesians present with adverse cholesterol biomarkers relative to Americans, despite being younger and having lower body mass index. Adjusting for age, the gaps increase. Body composition, behaviors, demographic and socioeconomic characteristics that affect cholesterol do not explain between-country HDL differences, but do explain non-HDL differences, after accounting for medication use. On average, gender differences are inconsistent across the two countries and persist after controlling observed characteristics. Leveraging the richness of the Indonesian data to draw comparisons of males and females within the same household, the gender gaps among Indonesians are not explained for HDL cholesterol but attenuated substantially for non-HDL cholesterol. This finding suggests that unmeasured household resources play an important role in determining non-HDL cholesterol. More generally, they appear to be affected by social and biological forces in complex ways that differ across countries and potentially operate differently for HDL and non-HDL biomarkers. These results point to the value of rigorous comparative studies to advance understanding of cardiovascular risks across the globe.
It never rains but it pours: Austerity and mortality rate in peripheral areas.
Guccio C, Pignataro G, Vidoli F
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38861882 · Publisher ↗
This study examines the impact of austerity measures on mortality rates across Italian regions from 2003 to 2018. Since 2007, regions experiencing substantial healthcare financial deficits have been required to implement...
This study examines the impact of austerity measures on mortality rates across Italian regions from 2003 to 2018. Since 2007, regions experiencing substantial healthcare financial deficits have been required to implement recovery plans (RPs). We use a recent difference-in-differences staggered matching estimator to assess the effects of this austerity policy on municipal-level monthly mortality rates. This allows us to evaluate the policy's spatial heterogeneity across treated municipalities, accounting for their distance from the nearest hospital. The analysis reveals a significant negative impact of austerity measures on health, particularly in peripheral areas and among vulnerable populations. Mortality rates are higher in regions under RPs, with this effect escalating with increasing distance from hospitals. The policy's impact is also more pronounced among vulnerable populations, with differences observed between genders and across seasons.
Pain and subjective well-being among older adults in the developing world : A comprehensive assessment based on the WHO Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health.
Amo-Agyei S, Maurer J
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38851164 · Publisher ↗
This paper studies the association of pain with subjective well-being (SWB) and time use among older adults in five low- and middle-income countries using data from the first wave of the WHO Study on Global Ageing and Ad...
This paper studies the association of pain with subjective well-being (SWB) and time use among older adults in five low- and middle-income countries using data from the first wave of the WHO Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health. We suggest a novel use of anchoring vignettes as direct control functions to account for potentially correlated reporting behaviors such as correlated response scales when analyzing the relationship between subjective variables such as self-reported pain and SWB. Exploiting detailed data on individual time use and several complementary measures of SWB, including fine-grained activity-specific affective experiences derived from an abbreviated version of the Day Reconstruction Method, we find that both evaluative and experienced well-being are markedly lower for people living with pain compared to those without pain. These disparities persist even after controlling for possible confounding from reporting behaviors through the use of anchoring vignettes. Differences in experienced utility by pain status appear to be exclusively due to worse affective experiences during daily activities for those with pain, which seem to be partially mediated through changes in their functional limitations. Pain-related differences in time use, in turn, seem to provide only small compensating effects, underscoring important challenges to the use of changed activity patterns as a viable coping strategy for individuals enduring pain.
Cash transfers and mental health in Egypt.
El-Enbaby H, Hollingsworth B, Maystadt JF … +1 more , Singhal S
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38838509 · Publisher ↗
The relationship between poverty and mental health is complex. Conditional cash transfers are seen as an important policy tool in reducing poverty and fostering social protection. Evidence on the impact of cash transfers...
The relationship between poverty and mental health is complex. Conditional cash transfers are seen as an important policy tool in reducing poverty and fostering social protection. Evidence on the impact of cash transfers on mental health is mixed. In this study, we assess the causal impact of Egypt's conditional cash transfer (CCT) programme Takaful on the main recipients' mental health. Using a regression discontinuity design, we find that receiving the Takaful CCT does not have a significant impact on the anxiety levels of mothers in our sample. In addition, we do not find supporting evidence that the programme has heterogeneous impacts on anxiety levels. We discuss possible explanations behind these null results.
Fuel poverty and mental health in a COVID-19 context.
Charlier D, Legendre B
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38838508 · Publisher ↗
Fuel poverty is a widespread problem which affects people's health and has serious economic and social repercussions. Mental health has been adversely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and appears to be particularly infl...
Fuel poverty is a widespread problem which affects people's health and has serious economic and social repercussions. Mental health has been adversely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and appears to be particularly influenced by fuel poverty. We analyze this relationship while highlighting the unequal vulnerability of individuals in the population. We first built a novel database of 4194 representative observations of the French adult population. We then used a conditional mixed-process model to quantify the causal effect of fuel poverty on mental health using instrumental variables to overcome potential endogeneity. We prove the robustness of this causal effect by providing different sensitivity tests. Our results show that being fuel poor decreases the mental health score by 6.3 points out of 100. Fuel poverty also increases the depression score by 5.35 points, the anxiety score by 6.48 points, and decreases the social health score by 6.82 points. Our results show that tackling energy poverty can lead to positive spillover effects to improve mental health. Mitigation policies to provide energy-efficient housing should also become a priority to address climatic and economic hazards in the long term because they imply co-benefits in health.
How did the European Marriage Pattern persist? Social versus familial inheritance: England and Quebec, 1650-1850.
Clark G, Cummins N, Curtis M
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38815501 · Publisher ↗
The European Marriage Pattern (EMP), in place in NW Europe for perhaps 500 years, substantially limited fertility. But how could such limitation persist when some individuals who deviated from the EMP norm had more child...
The European Marriage Pattern (EMP), in place in NW Europe for perhaps 500 years, substantially limited fertility. But how could such limitation persist when some individuals who deviated from the EMP norm had more children? If their children inherited their deviant behaviors, their descendants would quickly become the majority of later generations. This puzzle has two possible solutions. The first is that all those that deviated actually had lower net fertility over multiple generations. We show, however, no fertility penalty to future generations from higher initial fertility. Instead the EMP survived because even though the EMP persisted at the social level, children did not inherit their parents' individual fertility choices. In the paper we show evidence consistent with lateral, as opposed to vertical, transmission of EMP fertility behaviors.
Temperature exposure and sleep duration: Evidence from time use surveys.
Hajdu T
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38795699 · Publisher ↗
The Earth's climate is projected to warm significantly in the 21st century, and this will affect human societies in many ways. Since sleep is a basic human need and part of everyone's life, the question of how temperatur...
The Earth's climate is projected to warm significantly in the 21st century, and this will affect human societies in many ways. Since sleep is a basic human need and part of everyone's life, the question of how temperature affects human sleep naturally arises. This paper examines the effect of daily mean temperature on sleep duration using nationally representative Hungarian time use surveys between 1976 and 2010. Compared to a day with an average temperature of 5-10 °C, colder temperatures do not influence sleep duration. However, as daily mean temperatures rise, sleep duration starts to strongly decline. The effect of a hot (>25 °C) day is -13.3 minutes, but if preceded by a few other hot days, the effect is even stronger, -24.7 minutes. The estimated sleep loss is especially large on weekends and public holidays, for older individuals, and men. Combining the estimated effects with temperature projections of twenty-four climate models shows that the warming climate will substantially decrease sleep duration. The projected impacts are especially large when taking into account the effects of heatwave days. This study also shows that different groups in society are likely to be affected in significantly different ways by a warming climate.
Family poverty and adolescents' cognitive and noncognitive outcomes: Evidence from China.
Chen J, Zhang Z
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38772196 · Publisher ↗
Using data from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) during the 2013-2014 academic year, this paper examines the effects of family poverty on adolescents' cognitive and noncognitive outcomes. We find that family pover...
Using data from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) during the 2013-2014 academic year, this paper examines the effects of family poverty on adolescents' cognitive and noncognitive outcomes. We find that family poverty is detrimental to adolescent development. Children from poor families have poorer academic performance and noncognitive abilities. We also find that the negative effects of family poverty are more pronounced among children with urban hukou, boys, and children from one-child families. Furthermore, we find that there are multiple channels behind the estimated effects, including parental educational expectations, parental education investments, and parent-child relationship. This paper opens up the "black box" of family poverty affecting children's development, which can provide reference for governments to design measures aimed at eliminating poverty trap.
Vestiges of famine: Long-term mortality impacts of early-life exposure to the 1840s famine in Estonia.
Lust K, Jaadla H
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38744103 · Publisher ↗
The paper investigates whether exposure to a famine in the Russian Tsarist Province of Livland in 1844-1846 in early life negatively affected survival at later ages, using individual data from two rural parishes. We foll...
The paper investigates whether exposure to a famine in the Russian Tsarist Province of Livland in 1844-1846 in early life negatively affected survival at later ages, using individual data from two rural parishes. We follow 18 birth cohorts born between 1834-1852 until age 75 and differentiate between timing and length of exposures. We find that relative to individuals born in pre- or post- crisis years, there were no significant differences in survival from age 21-75. Cohorts with longer exposure to famine conditions had increased mortality only in short term, up to age 20. Males were more vulnerable in younger ages than females. The negative effect of adverse early life exposure on survival in later life was constrained to lower social group - the landless, but for the better-off groups the effect was constrained to younger ages. The paper highlights the importance of accounting for sex and socio-economic differences in studies exploring the effects of early life conditions on later-life survival.
The effects of social capital deprivation for wellbeing: Evidence from the Covid-19 pandemic.
Slater G
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38733866 · Publisher ↗
The paper explores the relationship between the Covid-19 pandemic, subjective wellbeing and social capital in the UK. I exploit the pandemic as a quasi-natural experiment of an exogenously induced reduction of social cap...
The paper explores the relationship between the Covid-19 pandemic, subjective wellbeing and social capital in the UK. I exploit the pandemic as a quasi-natural experiment of an exogenously induced reduction of social capital as an explanation of the frequently documented reduction in wellbeing during the pandemic period. Differently from the literature, results show that after the onset of the pandemic - when the imposition of restrictions to social interactions occurred - both mental health and life satisfaction substantially decreased, and this decrease was larger for the people who reported having higher pre-pandemic social capital. Results also show however that their wellbeing decrease was not high enough to fully overturn the wellbeing gap usually in their favour. This suggests that the positive effects of social capital for wellbeing are via at least two pathways: in-person social interactions and via the value of having social networks. These results contribute to the literature on the relationship between social capital and wellbeing, as well as the one on the effects of the pandemic for mental health and life satisfaction. Policy implications include investing in social capital to increase overall populations' wellbeing; and, during epidemiological crises, facilitating online psychological support to hamper the negative effects of social isolation, and campaigning to encourage people to keep as much as possible in touch with loved ones and their communities via online social networks and online events to prevent a further degradation of the quantity and quality of social interactions.
High times and troubled relationships: Recreational marijuana laws and intimate partner violence.
Baggio M, Chong A, Suryanarayana R
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38733865 · Publisher ↗
This study explores the relationship between Recreational Marijuana Laws (RMLs) and intimate partner violence (IPV). While marijuana is often considered harmless, the existing medical literature reveals both positive and...
This study explores the relationship between Recreational Marijuana Laws (RMLs) and intimate partner violence (IPV). While marijuana is often considered harmless, the existing medical literature reveals both positive and negative impacts of its active ingredient on brain function. Utilizing a difference-in-difference methodology spanning 2006-2016 across 39 states, we find that RMLs produce a 20 percent increase in IPV incidents per 100,000 individuals, which appears to be mediated through mental health issues and binge drinking. These findings highlight the likely need for preventive and proactive policies to address the complex interplay of marijuana, RMLs, and IPV.
The impact of excess body weight on employment outcomes: A systematic review of the evidence.
Kesaite V, Greve J
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38718448 · Publisher ↗
BACKGROUND: Excess body weight has been recognised as an important factor in influencing labour market outcomes. Several hypotheses explain the causal effect of excess body weight on employment outcomes, including produc...
BACKGROUND: Excess body weight has been recognised as an important factor in influencing labour market outcomes. Several hypotheses explain the causal effect of excess body weight on employment outcomes, including productivity, labour supply, and discrimination. In this review, we provide a systematic synthesis of the evidence on the causal impact of excess body weight on labour market outcomes worldwide. METHODS: We searched Econ Lit, and Web of Science databases for relevant studies published from 1st Jan 2010-20 th Jan 2023. Studies were included if they were either longitudinal analysis, pooled cross-sectional or cross-sectional studies if they used instrumental variable methodology based on Mendelian Randomisation. Only studies with measures of body weight and employment outcomes were included. RESULTS: The number of potentially relevant studies constituted 4321 hits. A total of 59 studies met the inclusion criteria and were qualitatively reviewed by the authors. Most of the included studies were conducted in the USA (N=18), followed by the UK (N=9), Germany (N=6), Finland (N=4), and non-EU countries (N=22). Evidence from the included studies suggests that the effect of excess weight differs by gender, ethnicity, country, and time period. White women with excess weight in the USA, the UK, Germany, Canada, and in the EU (multi-country analyses) are less likely to be employed, and when employed they face lower wages compared to normal weight counterparts. For men there is no effect of excess weight on employment outcomes or the magnitude of the effect is much smaller or even positive in some cases. CONCLUSIONS: This review has shown that despite ample research on the relationship between excess weight and employment status and wages, robust causal evidence of the effects of excess weight on employment outcomes remains scarce and relies significantly on strong statistical and theoretical assumptions. Further research into these relationships outside of USA and Western Europe context is needed.
The changing relationship between bodyweight and longevity in high- and low-income countries.
Kopinska J, Atella V, Bhattacharya J … +1 more , Miller G
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38703461 · Publisher ↗
Standard measures of bodyweight (overweight and obese, for example) fail to reflect differences across populations and technological progress over time. This paper builds on the pioneering work of Hans Waaler (1984) and...
Standard measures of bodyweight (overweight and obese, for example) fail to reflect differences across populations and technological progress over time. This paper builds on the pioneering work of Hans Waaler (1984) and Robert Fogel (1994) to empirically estimate how the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and longevity varies across high-, middle-, and low-income countries. Importantly, we show that these differences are so profound that the share of national populations above mortality-minimizing bodyweight is not clearly greater in countries with higher overweight and obesity rates (as traditionally defined)-and in fact, relative to current standards, a larger share of low-income countries' populations can be unhealthily heavy.
Association of cigarette smoking with changes in macroeconomic conditions.
Asare S
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38703460 · Publisher ↗
This study uses data from the 1987-2022 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System and state-level employment rates from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics to estimate the association between macroeconomic conditions and...
This study uses data from the 1987-2022 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System and state-level employment rates from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics to estimate the association between macroeconomic conditions and cigarette smoking. Our finding suggests a positive association, which constantly declined with time after the 2001 recession. We find that a one percentage point increase in the employment rate is associated with a 1.4% higher likelihood of smoking cigarettes in the overall sample but declined to 0.4% among cohorts surveyed from 2011 to 2022. We also find strong positive and heterogeneous associations among sociodemographic groups, except among Blacks and persons aged 65 years and older, among whom there is no association; however, the positive associations consistently decreased among these sociodemographic groups. Consequently, the strong positive association disappeared in several sociodemographic groups in cohorts surveyed over the last decade.
Race, immunity, and lifespan: Unraveling the effect of early-life exposure to malaria risk on lifespan.
Hong SC, Hwang I
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38648699 · Full text
We investigate a historical experience to measure the long-term effect of malaria on lifespan among infected survivors and identify a factor that mitigates malaria's effect. Using a sample of Union Army veterans born dur...
We investigate a historical experience to measure the long-term effect of malaria on lifespan among infected survivors and identify a factor that mitigates malaria's effect. Using a sample of Union Army veterans born during the mid-19th century and their lifetime records, we show that exposure to high risk of malaria at birth or in early life substantially shortened their lifespan. The legacy of exposure to malaria is robust while controlling for lifetime socioeconomic and health conditions, fixed effects, and considering selection bias. Additionally, we include the US Colored Troops sample of black veterans to analyze racial differences in the effect of malaria exposure on lifespan. Exposure to malaria did not lead to a shorter lifespan among black veterans. Evidence suggests that genetic immunity to malaria in black veterans might contribute this heterogeneity.
Does facial structure explain differences in student evaluations of teaching? The role of fWHR as a proxy for perceived dominance.
Paredes V, Pino FJ, Díaz D
Econ Hum Biol · 2024 Aug · PMID 38642450 · Publisher ↗
Dominance is usually viewed as a positive male attribute, but this is not typically the case for women. Using a novel dataset of student evaluations of teaching in a school of Business and Economics of a selective univer...
Dominance is usually viewed as a positive male attribute, but this is not typically the case for women. Using a novel dataset of student evaluations of teaching in a school of Business and Economics of a selective university, we construct the face width-to-height ratio (fWHR) as a proxy for perceived dominance to assess whether individuals with a higher ratio obtain better evaluations. Our results show that a higher fWHR is associated with a better evaluation for male faculty, while the opposite is the case for female faculty. These results are not due to differences in teachers' quality or beauty. In terms of magnitude, the effect of the fWHR is much larger for female professors. To the extent that fWHR is a good proxy of perceived dominance, it appears that conformity to traditional gender norms pays off for both men and women. However, the cost of challenging these norms is much larger for women than for men.
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