Spelling is a vital academic skill that supports students' writing and reading development (Kim, 2020). We conducted a comprehensive meta-analytic review of spelling interventions with students with or at-risk for learni...Spelling is a vital academic skill that supports students' writing and reading development (Kim, 2020). We conducted a comprehensive meta-analytic review of spelling interventions with students with or at-risk for learning disabilities (LDs) employing randomized controlled trials, quasi-experimental designs, and single-case designs. Fifty-nine studies met inclusion criteria-39 group design and 20 single-case design (SCD) studies-comprising 2,229 students in Grades K-9, the vast majority of whom were described as with or at-risk for LDs, with only one study including general education students. The studies yielded 327 spelling and word reading effect sizes that were used to answer three research questions regarding the overall average impact of the interventions on spelling and word reading outcomes, differential effects of the spelling intervention approach, and characteristics that may moderate effects. We ran four meta-analytic models on spelling interventions' effects on spelling and reading outcomes, conducted subgroup analyses on group designs for different spelling approaches, and ran meta-regression models with five covariates on group designs to examine moderating effects. Publication bias analyses were also conducted. Results indicated that group design spelling interventions had a small but significant effect on spelling ( = 0.33, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.26, 0.40]) and word reading ( = 0.25, 95% CI = [0.13, 0.37]) outcomes, while SCDs had a large and significant impact on spelling (between-case standardized mean difference [BC-SMD] 2.47, 95% CI = [1.82, 3.13]) and word reading (BC-SMD = 1.52, 95% CI = [0.83, 2.21]) outcomes. Furthermore, results demonstrate that group design spelling interventions employing whole word study ( = 0.56, 95% CI = [0.41, 0.71]) and multilinguistic ( = 0.43, 95% CI = [0.25, 0.60]) approaches benefit spelling outcomes, while phonemic approaches to spelling intervention transfer to word reading outcomes ( = 0.45, 95% CI = [0.35, 0.55]). Findings highlight the need for systematic replication of spelling interventions to further understand the impact on writing and reading outcomes for students with LD.
Many children in the United States fail to meet proficiency benchmarks on mathematics and English Language Arts (ELA) tests in elementary school despite those tests being related to future outcomes. Thus, strategies are...Many children in the United States fail to meet proficiency benchmarks on mathematics and English Language Arts (ELA) tests in elementary school despite those tests being related to future outcomes. Thus, strategies are needed to identify and support children at risk for failing to reach proficiency in mathematics and ELA that consider multiple school readiness domains. The current study tested predictive relations between preschool skills and proficiency status on third and fourth-grade state tests for mathematics and ELA using data from 431 children. Three backward selection ordinal logistic regressions were run for each outcome using nine assessments covering mathematics, language, literacy, and executive function (EF) skills. Models using (a) fall scores, (b) spring scores, and (c) the average and change scores across the preschool year consistently identified early mathematics ( from 1.34 to 2.32) and EF ( from 1.23 to 1.40) as strong predictors of proficiency in both mathematics and ELA. Children's vocabulary skills ( from 1.29 to 1.55), but not early literacy skills, were consistently strong predictors of proficiency in ELA. Implications for policy and practice to improve children's early learning outcomes are discussed.
This U.S. study experimentally examined whether specific learning disability (SLD) identification model (i.e., ability-achievement discrepancy [Ab-Ach], response-to-intervention [RtI], and patterns of strengths and weakn...This U.S. study experimentally examined whether specific learning disability (SLD) identification model (i.e., ability-achievement discrepancy [Ab-Ach], response-to-intervention [RtI], and patterns of strengths and weaknesses [PSW]) was associated with SLD identification decisions, the confidence in the decision, and the perceived importance of different assessment data sources in identifying SLD. Participants ( = 264) reviewed a psychoeducational evaluation vignette and determined whether the student should be identified with SLD based on the identification criteria for their randomly assigned condition (i.e., Ab-Ach, RtI, or PSW). Results indicated that type of SLD identification model used did not predict SLD identification decision or the confidence in the decision. However, participant race was related to SLD identification decisions, and participant race, national certification, and years of experience were related to decision confidence. School psychologists rated progress monitoring data, standardized tests, and educational record reviews as the most salient assessment data sources in identifying SLD.
Given oral language's role in writing proficiency and to address measurement issues in oral and written language, we trialed complementary scoring metrics in language sample analysis (LSA) with the sentence-level Picture...Given oral language's role in writing proficiency and to address measurement issues in oral and written language, we trialed complementary scoring metrics in language sample analysis (LSA) with the sentence-level Picture Word Writing Curriculum-Based Measure (CBM-W). Using the Picture Word CBM-W samples of 123 Midwestern U.S. students with writing difficulties, we investigated (1a) alternate form reliability, (1b) criterion-related validity with existing Picture Word CBM-W metrics, (2) criterion-related validity with a standardized written expression measure, and (3) sensitivity to growth from fall to spring for LSA and Picture Word CBM-W scoring mechanisms. Pearson product-moment correlations, Spearman's correlations, and Bonferroni-corrected paired-samples -tests revealed two promising LSA metrics with evidence of technical quality and sensitivity to growth as a complementary scoring mechanism for Picture Word CBM-W: mean length of T-Unit in morphemes (MLTU-M) using the mean of two forms in the fall, and number of different words (NDW) using the mean of two forms in fall and spring. Results support the role of oral language in sentence-level writing proficiency, as well as MLTU-M and NDW as complementary scoring mechanisms to provide more specific estimates of oral language skills in grammar/morphosyntax and semantics/lexical diversity not possible with current Picture Word CBM-W scoring mechanisms.
This study investigates the time-use patterns of students with learning disabilities during digital mathematics assessments and explores the role of extended time accommodations (ETA) in shaping these patterns. Using lat...This study investigates the time-use patterns of students with learning disabilities during digital mathematics assessments and explores the role of extended time accommodations (ETA) in shaping these patterns. Using latent profile analysis, the researcher identified four distinct time-use profiles separately for a group of U.S. 8th-grade students with LD, with and without ETA. "Initial Focusers" spend more time on simpler initial items and less time on later, more difficult items, exhibiting high omission rates and low performance. "Rapid Progressors" complete assessments quickly but exhibit shallow engagement across all items, achieving low performance. "Diligent Time Maximizers" allocate time effortfully across items but often run out of time on the last two items when ETA was not granted, achieving the second-highest scores. "Efficient Prioritizers," excel in strategic time management, score the highest, and report strong persistence and interest in math. The findings reveal that ETA supports students who adopt meticulous strategies, such as Diligent Time Maximizers, but does not universally address the challenges faced by other profiles. This study underscores the need for tailored interventions and accommodations aligned with individual time-use profiles to foster equitable and effective learning and assessment environments.
In the context of increasing legislative emphasis on universal screening for reading problems, the accurate and equitable assessment of English learners (ELs) remains a pressing concern. This study examines how kindergar...In the context of increasing legislative emphasis on universal screening for reading problems, the accurate and equitable assessment of English learners (ELs) remains a pressing concern. This study examines how kindergarten and first-grade students' performance on early literacy measures in English is affected by their English proficiency. In this paper, we report on performance on measures of deletion, picture naming, sentence repetition, letter naming fluency, word and nonword reading, and rapid object naming across the school year. Drawing on a diverse and representative sample of 3,064 students across 31 U.S. Californian schools, we addressed two main research questions. First, we compared the performance of English-only students (EO) to ELs and to students identified as English-proficient (EP) but speaking another language at home. Findings indicated that ELs consistently scored lower than their EO and EP peers across all assessments. Second, we compared growth patterns. While most measures showed similar growth rates, a significant performance gap remained for ELs ( < .001). Notably, EP students displayed distinct performance patterns, outperforming EO students in most tasks, except for those demanding more vocabulary. Our findings emphasize the importance of tailored assessment approaches and consideration of English proficiency when interpreting ELs' performance.
This study investigated the efficacy of a Tier 2 multiplicative reasoning (MR) intervention designed to help third-grade students at risk for mathematics difficulties (MD) develop conceptual understanding of MR. The MR i...This study investigated the efficacy of a Tier 2 multiplicative reasoning (MR) intervention designed to help third-grade students at risk for mathematics difficulties (MD) develop conceptual understanding of MR. The MR intervention included opportunities for students to engage in critical thinking as they generalized big ideas, participated in classroom discourse, and modeled multiplicative relationships with multiple representations. Sixteen elementary teachers from a southwestern U.S. school district were randomly assigned to a treatment or control (business-as-usual, BAU) condition. Participants included 86 third-grade students who demonstrated MD. Data analyzed after 6 weeks of instruction revealed statistically significant and nonnegligible differences between conditions on a researcher-developed MR assessment, with posttest differences favoring treatment classrooms. However, treatment was not a significant predictor of the Group Mathematics Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation posttest scores. Results demonstrated that the MR intervention was on average more effective than the BAU approach in improving students' ability to reason with multiplicative concepts and procedures.
The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of a fraction vocabulary intervention with fraction arithmetic components on fraction vocabulary knowledge and fraction arithmetic competencies among fourth-grade Chine...The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of a fraction vocabulary intervention with fraction arithmetic components on fraction vocabulary knowledge and fraction arithmetic competencies among fourth-grade Chinese students with mathematics difficulties. We randomly assigned 70 students with mathematics difficulties to three conditions: fraction vocabulary only ( = 23), fraction vocabulary with an arithmetic component ( = 23), and a business-as-usual (BaU) condition ( = 24). The students in the fraction vocabulary intervention conditions participated in 10 sessions, occurring three times per week. Students within both intervention conditions showed significantly better performance in fraction vocabulary knowledge than those in the BaU condition. However, no notable distinctions were observed between the two intervention conditions in terms of fraction arithmetic. Only students who received the fraction vocabulary intervention with an arithmetic component exhibited enhanced performance in subtraction with like denominators compared to the BaU condition.
Research on Family Quality of Life (FQoL) has increasingly focused on the impact of learning disabilities on families. However, there is a lack of comprehensive understanding of how Specific Learning Disabilities (SpLD)...Research on Family Quality of Life (FQoL) has increasingly focused on the impact of learning disabilities on families. However, there is a lack of comprehensive understanding of how Specific Learning Disabilities (SpLD) or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity/Disorder (ADHD) affect executive function (EF) deficits in children and FQoL across different household income levels. The current study compared the FQoL ratings from caregivers of three groups of Hong Kong Chinese children with learning disabilities (SpLD = 107; ADHD = 43; SpLD & ADHD = 67, no typically developing control group was included). Results revealed that group classification of learning disabilities was related to two domains of FQoL (family interaction and parenting) through the child's EF. Children with co-occurring SpLD and ADHD exhibit relatively stable EF deficits across income levels, maintaining higher EF deficits than those with SpLD alone and showing less variation than those with ADHD, who demonstrate a significant decrease in EF deficits at higher household income. Executive function deficits were associated with lower family interaction and parenting ratings across group and income levels. The findings enhance our understanding of FQoL among children with SpLD, ADHD, and their co-occurrence, highlighting the need for additional support for these families.
Stamp J, Dupéré V, Pelletier-Dumas M
… +3 more, Ahn JS, Plante I, Archambault I
J Learn Disabil
· 2026 · PMID 40391564
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The transition into post-secondary education or employment presents significant challenges for youth with high-incidence disabilities affecting learning, most commonly learning disabilities and attention-deficit/hyperact...The transition into post-secondary education or employment presents significant challenges for youth with high-incidence disabilities affecting learning, most commonly learning disabilities and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. To date, few longitudinal studies investigate this transition in youth with learning-related disorders specifically, especially while considering education and employment outcomes simultaneously. This study examined relationships between learning-related disabilities requiring an individual intervention plan (Individualized Education Program [IEP]) in high school and key transition outcomes in early twenties in Quebec ( = 513; 61.4% with an IEP; 51.0% male). Compared with their normative peers, youth with learning-related disabilities were less likely to graduate from high school and enroll in college; more likely to be neither in education, employment, or training (NEET); and equally likely to be employed, regardless of the job type (career-related or not). Young women with disabilities were particularly likely to be NEET, and the gender gap in college enrollment favoring women narrowed among those with disabilities. Gender and disability status appear to intersect to shape critical early adulthood outcomes.
J Learn Disabil
· 2026 · PMID 40293135
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We examined whether children with comorbid reading (RD) and mathematics (MD) difficulties experience more internalizing problems (anxiety, depression, somatic complaints, and social withdrawal) than children without como...We examined whether children with comorbid reading (RD) and mathematics (MD) difficulties experience more internalizing problems (anxiety, depression, somatic complaints, and social withdrawal) than children without comorbidity. In addition, we examined whether any significant group differences are due to differences between groups in attention. Thirty-three Canadian children with RD (51.5% female; = 10.80 years), 35 with MD (60.0% female; = 10.79 years), 37 with comorbid RDMD (45.9% female; = 10.79 years), and 42 chronological-age (CA) controls (64.3% female; = 10.82 years) were assessed on reading, mathematics, general cognitive ability, and attention tasks. Their teachers also rated their anxiety, depression, somatic complaints, and social withdrawal. Results of analyses of variance showed that children with comorbid RDMD exhibited significantly higher levels of anxiety and depression compared only to the CA controls. However, after controlling for attention, these group differences were no longer significant. These findings suggest that children with comorbid RDMD may be at greater risk for anxiety and depression, although attention difficulties likely contribute to these differences.
Lai J, Rice M, Quinonez-Beltran JF
… +2 more, Pittman RT, Joshi RM
J Learn Disabil
· 2026 · PMID 40243080
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Existing language and literacy assessments have been widely validated and applied among monolingual students to identify those at risk for difficulties in reading, yet for emergent bilingual students (EBs), the effective...Existing language and literacy assessments have been widely validated and applied among monolingual students to identify those at risk for difficulties in reading, yet for emergent bilingual students (EBs), the effectiveness of current assessments to identify potential reading difficulties remains unknown. The present systematic review aimed to examine the criterion validity of assessments conducted among EBs to predict reading achievement in their second language (L2), in addition to the status quo of research methods (i.e., participant and assessment characteristics). A literature search yielded 23 studies that targeted preschool to fifth-grade EBs. Results suggest that decoding, reading fluency, and phonological awareness assessments presented close to satisfactory evidence of criterion validity, whereas assessments of other skills, such as reading comprehension, rapid automatized naming, letter knowledge, and verbal memory, showed weaker validity. Included studies showed homogenous profiles of EBs, indicating a lack of evidence for EBs from various language backgrounds. Existing assessments involved various domains of literacy, including code-related skills, oral language, and domain-general cognitive skills. These assessments also varied across aspects of standardization and language of administration. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed.
DeMatthews D, Bettini E, Billingsley B
… +1 more, Burns EM
J Learn Disabil
· 2025 · PMID 40098268
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Educators need supportive working conditions to fulfill their responsibilities to students, families, and colleagues. Given the crucial role of working conditions in teacher effectiveness, we sought to understand educato...Educators need supportive working conditions to fulfill their responsibilities to students, families, and colleagues. Given the crucial role of working conditions in teacher effectiveness, we sought to understand educators' (including general educators, paraeducators, specaial educators, and principals) perspectives about their working conditions as they included students with disabilities. We analyzed 28 primarily qualitative studies, conducted between 1998 and 2023, using Conservation of Resources (COR) theory as a framework to study their working conditions. We analyzed their responsibilities in inclusive schools (e.g., instruction, collaboration), and the resources that were provided or needed to fulfill those responsibilities (e.g., time, professional development). We found inclusion often required substantial responsibilities for educators; however, they often lacked needed resources, leaving them feeling stretched thin as they tried to meet students' needs. These findings have implications for supporting educators in inclusive schools.
J Learn Disabil
· 2026 · PMID 40091276
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Labeling students with learning problems may change teachers' evaluations of them. Our study examined whether the "Special Learning Needs" (SLN) and "Learning Disability" (LD) labels influenced teachers' beliefs that the...Labeling students with learning problems may change teachers' evaluations of them. Our study examined whether the "Special Learning Needs" (SLN) and "Learning Disability" (LD) labels influenced teachers' beliefs that the diagnosis was correct and activated a low-competence stereotype. We examined whether this stereotype lowered teachers' performance expectations and teaching intentions. A sample of 413 German general and special education teachers were randomly assigned to the control (no label) or one of the experimental groups (SLN/LD label). All teachers read the description of a fictitious student with learning problems. Only in the experimental groups was the student labeled with an LD or SLN. Results showed that both labels increased teachers' acceptance of the diagnosis as accurate. However, the labels did not change teachers' stereotypes of the fictitious student. The LD label lowered some of teachers' long-term performance expectations, resulting in more track recommendations to a special school. Unexpectedly, the SLN label increased the intention to foster the student's academic performance. Some performance expectations of special education teachers were lower than those of general education teachers, which did not manifest in different teaching intentions. The findings are discussed in the context of the Dilemma of Difference.
This study investigated the extent to which domain-general and domain-specific antecedents contributed to pre-algebra's initial level and growth rate among students who experience word-problem difficulty (WPD). We examin...This study investigated the extent to which domain-general and domain-specific antecedents contributed to pre-algebra's initial level and growth rate among students who experience word-problem difficulty (WPD). We examined if such a profile differs for English-language learners (ELLs; = 75) and non-ELLs ( = 55) with WPD. We assessed 130 U.S. students at the beginning of Grade 3, end of Grade 3, and middle of Grade 4. The latent growth curve analyses revealed only word-problem solving emerged as a predictor of pre-algebraic growth across ELLs and non-ELLs. English-language learners' stronger computational skills, along with their cognitive flexibility, potentially enabled them to effectively leverage working memory and nonverbal reasoning in acquiring pre-algebraic knowledge.
Both vocabulary skill and morphological complexity, or whether words can be broken down into root words and affixes, have a significant impact on word processing for adults with low literacy. We investigated the influenc...Both vocabulary skill and morphological complexity, or whether words can be broken down into root words and affixes, have a significant impact on word processing for adults with low literacy. We investigated the influence of word-level variables of morphological complexity and root word frequency, and the sentence-level variable of context strength, on word processing in adults with low literacy, who differed on levels of vocabulary depth skills, which was a participant-level variable. Our findings demonstrate that morphological complexity, root word frequency, and context strength are all related to how adult learners process words while reading, but their effects are dependent on participants' vocabulary depth. Participants with higher levels of vocabulary depth were able to more quickly process morphologically complex words and make better use of supportive sentence context as compared to individuals with lower levels of vocabulary depth. These findings suggest that both morphological complexity and vocabulary depth are important for word processing and reading comprehension in adults with low literacy.
For decades, there have been competing visions of how and where to educate students with disabilities (SWDs) in America's K-12 schools. One conception is that general classrooms can accommodate the learning needs of virt...For decades, there have been competing visions of how and where to educate students with disabilities (SWDs) in America's K-12 schools. One conception is that general classrooms can accommodate the learning needs of virtually all children. A second approach calls for multiple placement options. Over the years, the context in which this disagreement has played out has changed as educators have shifted from a reliance on special classes to trust in general classes to enthusiasm for intensive instruction beyond the general class. Such variation in practice has influenced how researchers have explored relations between SWDs' placement and their academic performance. Some of this research has been weak, producing unreliable findings. Some has generated more trustworthy results. All stakeholders would benefit from distinguishing the weaker studies from the stronger ones. Yet, to date, there has been an absence of such effort. In this paper, we provide a concise history of placement-achievement research and then review evidence spanning 50 years, bearing on how and where to educate SWDs. We conclude that the research on has generally been weak and inconclusive; the research on , stronger and more certain. Implications for educating SWDs are discussed.
Connors KH, Guertin EL, Nichol M
… +3 more, Bosson-Heenan JM, Gruen JR, Frijters JC
J Learn Disabil
· 2025 · PMID 39924773
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Learning disabilities are challenging to characterize because they evolve throughout development, frequently co-occur, and have varying domain specificity. Addressing these challenges, we analyzed longitudinal patterns o...Learning disabilities are challenging to characterize because they evolve throughout development, frequently co-occur, and have varying domain specificity. Addressing these challenges, we analyzed longitudinal patterns of growth, co-occurrence, and specificity manifesting in the math and reading skills of children with and without learning disabilities. With a sample of 498 Grade 1 U.S. children followed for 5 years, we used linear mixed-effects models to explore group-level differences among children with math disability (MD), reading disability (RD), co-occurring disability, and no disability. Findings revealed: Math and reading trajectories of children with learning disabilities parallel those of children without disabilities. Skill growth slows over time, regardless of skill level, suggesting disability-related impairments will not resolve without intervention. Impairment levels and growth trajectories of children with co-occurring disabilities match the within-domain patterns of children with isolated disabilities, supporting a longitudinally maintained additive model of co-occurrence. MD and RD show varying specificity. MD impairments are domain-specific and become more pronounced over time. RD impairments impact both domains early, become more domain-specific over time, but maintain curriculum-contingent math deficits. Findings suggest early math intervention should balance linguistic and conceptual support, as the source of a child's math difficulties may not be clear until well into elementary school.