Journal Of Learning Disabilities[JOURNAL]
Sun
200 papers
Concept-Focused and Procedure-Focused Instruction on the Algebra Performance of Grade 9 Students With and Without Mathematics Difficulty.
Lee J
J Learn Disabil · 2025 · PMID 38761088 · Publisher ↗
Developing both conceptual and procedural knowledge is important for students' mathematics competence. This study examined whether U.S. Grade 9 general education mathematics teachers' self-reported use of concept-focused...
Developing both conceptual and procedural knowledge is important for students' mathematics competence. This study examined whether U.S. Grade 9 general education mathematics teachers' self-reported use of concept-focused instruction (CFI) and procedure-focused instruction (PFI) were associated differently with ninth graders' algebra achievement after 2.5 years, depending on students' mathematics difficulty (MD) status. Data for this study were drawn from the High School Longitudinal Study for the years 2009-2010 and 2011-2012 ( = 19,104). Multiple regression analyses indicated that students with MD who participated in Grade 9 mathematics classrooms where teachers self-reported the use of less CFI and more PFI were more positively associated with having higher algebra achievement after 2.5 years. Conversely, students without MD in classrooms where mathematics teachers self-reported the use of more CFI and less PFI were positively associated with having higher algebra achievement after 2.5 years. However, this study's findings do not suggest that teachers should disregard CFI and provide only PFI when teaching students with MD. Because the data set did not include any variable to discover whether teachers provided sufficient support (i.e., evidence-based practices) for students with MD, who have more constraints in their cognitive skills compared to students without MD, to benefit from CFI, the findings of this study should be interpreted cautiously. Directions for future research and practical implications are discussed.
Low Literacy Levels Among U.S. Adults and Difficult Ballot Propositions.
Parker RL
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 38712805 · Publisher ↗
High-level literacy skills are required for full participation in the democratic process through voting. Consequently, adults with low-level literacy skills are at a disadvantage. This work investigated the disparity bet...
High-level literacy skills are required for full participation in the democratic process through voting. Consequently, adults with low-level literacy skills are at a disadvantage. This work investigated the disparity between the readability of U.S. ballot propositions for year 2022 state elections and grade level reading estimates (≤eighth grade) for adults. Educational attainment was also examined. Propositions ( = 140) from 38 states were included. Mean readability was 18 (range 7.0-64.0). Only four measures (3%) fell within range of national estimates for adult reading ability. Thirty-nine percent of adults completed high school or less, yet 74% of ballots were written well above a high school reading level. There is a discrepancy between the literacy skills of the average voter and the readability of most propositions. The findings of this study have important implications for individuals with learning disabilities. Policy changes and educational support efforts should be initiated.
Comorbid Word Reading and Mathematics Computation Difficulty at Start of First Grade.
Fuchs LS, Fuchs D, Cho E … +3 more , Barnes MA, Koponen T, Espinas DR
J Learn Disabil · 2025 · PMID 38686606 · Full text
The purpose of this analysis was to describe cognitive processes associated with comorbid difficulty between word reading (WR) and mathematics computation (MC) at the start of first grade among children selected for WR a...
The purpose of this analysis was to describe cognitive processes associated with comorbid difficulty between word reading (WR) and mathematics computation (MC) at the start of first grade among children selected for WR and MC delays. A sample of 234 U.S. children (mean age 6.50 years, = 0.31) was assessed on WR, MC, core cognitive processes (phonological processing, rapid automatized naming, verbal counting [VC]), and domain-general cognitive processes (working memory, oral language, nonverbal reasoning, attentive behavior). Structural equation modeling was used to predict a latent Comorbidity factor, which modeled shared variance between WR and MC, and to identify processes associated with that Comorbidity factor. Results identified each of the core cognitive processes, especially VC, and each of the domain-general cognitive processes, especially working memory, as explaining shared variance between WR and MC. Implications for understanding comorbid difficulty at the start of first grade and designing coordinated first-grade interventions are discussed.
Erratum to Academic Achievement and Satisfaction Among University Students With Specific Learning Disabilities: The Roles of Soft Skills and Study-Related Factors.
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 38605503 · Publisher ↗
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Impaired Ability in Visual-Spatial Attention in Chinese Children With Developmental Dyslexia.
Tian M, Ji Y, Wang R … +1 more , Bi HY
J Learn Disabil · 2025 · PMID 38591175 · Publisher ↗
A growing body of evidence suggests that children with dyslexia in alphabetic languages exhibit visual-spatial attention deficits that can obstruct reading acquisition by impairing their phonological decoding skills. How...
A growing body of evidence suggests that children with dyslexia in alphabetic languages exhibit visual-spatial attention deficits that can obstruct reading acquisition by impairing their phonological decoding skills. However, it remains an open question whether these visual-spatial attention deficits are present in children with dyslexia in non-alphabetic languages. Chinese, with its logographic writing system, offers a unique opportunity to explore this question. The presence of visual-spatial attention deficits in Chinese children with dyslexia remains insufficiently investigated. Therefore, this study aimed to explore whether such deficits exist, employing a visual search paradigm. Three visual search tasks were conducted, encompassing two singleton feature search tasks and a serial conjunction search task. The results indicated that Chinese children with dyslexia performed as well as chronological age-matched control children in color search tasks but less effectively in orientation search, suggesting a difficulty in the rapid visual processing of orientation: a deficit potentially specific to Chinese dyslexia. Crucially, Chinese children with dyslexia also exhibited lower accuracy, longer reaction times, and steeper slopes in the reaction times by set size function in the conjunction search task compared to control children, which is indicative of a visual-spatial attention deficit.
What Environments Support Reading Growth Among Current Compared With Former Reading Intervention Recipients? A Multilevel Analysis of Students and Their Schools.
Hall GJ, Nelson PM, Parker DC
J Learn Disabil · 2025 · PMID 38563210 · Publisher ↗
School context can shape relative intervention response in myriad ways due to factors, such as instructional quality, resource allocation, peer effects, and correlations between the school context and characteristics of...
School context can shape relative intervention response in myriad ways due to factors, such as instructional quality, resource allocation, peer effects, and correlations between the school context and characteristics of enrolled students (e.g., higher-poverty students attending higher-poverty schools). In the current study, we used data from 16,000 U.S. Grade 3 students in a community-based supplemental reading intervention program to investigate the degree to which school context factors (percentage eligible for free/reduced-price lunch [FRPL], school-level achievement) relate to the differences in triannual reading fluency growth rates between students actively receiving supplemental intervention (active recipients) and those that formerly received intervention (and therefore only received general class instruction at this time; former recipients). Using Bayesian multilevel modeling, our findings indicate that school-level FRPL eligibility played a more prominent factor in growth rate differences between these two groups than school-level reading achievement. However, school-level reading achievement was much more strongly related to reading fluency differences between active and former intervention recipients at the beginning of the school year (when controlling for FRPL). Implications for investigating school-level heterogeneity in intervention response and sustainability are discussed.
Graph Out Loud: Pre-Service Teachers' Data Decisions and Interpretations of CBM Progress Graphs.
Toste JR, Filderman MJ, Clemens NH … +1 more , Fry E
J Learn Disabil · 2025 · PMID 38414299 · Full text
Data-based instruction (DBI) is a process in which teachers use progress data to make ongoing instructional decisions for students with learning disabilities. Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a common form of progre...
Data-based instruction (DBI) is a process in which teachers use progress data to make ongoing instructional decisions for students with learning disabilities. Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a common form of progress monitoring, and CBM data are placed on a graph to guide decision-making. Despite the central role that graph interpretation plays in the successful implementation of DBI, relatively little attention has been devoted to investigating this skill among special education teachers. In the present study, we examined the data decisions of 32 U.S. pre-service special education teachers (29 females and 3 males). Participants viewed data presented sequentially on CBM progress graphs and used a think-aloud procedure to explain their reasoning each time they indicated they would make instructional changes. We also asked participants to make the same type of decisions in response to static CBM progress graphs depicting 10 weeks of data. Overall, there was inconsistency in pre-service teachers' responses related to or they would make an instructional change. Decisions were often influenced by graph-related features, such as variability in the data. Furthermore, responses suggested misunderstandings that led to premature instructional change decisions and reliance on individual data points.
Derivational Morphology Training in French-Speaking 9- to 14- Year-Old Children and Adolescents With Developmental Dyslexia: Does It Improve Morphological Awareness, Reading, and Spelling Outcome Measures?
Ardanouy E, Zesiger P, Delage H
J Learn Disabil · 2025 · PMID 38321972 · Full text
Children with developmental dyslexia (DD) display partially preserved morphology skills which they rely upon for reading and spelling. Therefore, we conducted explicit and intensive training of derivational morphology in...
Children with developmental dyslexia (DD) display partially preserved morphology skills which they rely upon for reading and spelling. Therefore, we conducted explicit and intensive training of derivational morphology in French and Swiss individuals with DD, ages 9 to 14 years, in order to assess its effect on: morphological awareness, reading (speed and accuracy), and spelling. Our pre-posttest design included a group trained in derivational morphology and a group of children who continued their business-as-usual rehabilitation program with their speech-language therapist. Results showed effects on morphological awareness and on the spelling of complex words, with a large between-group effect size for trained items and a large to moderate effect size for untrained items. All these gains tended to be maintained over time on the delayed posttest, 2 months later. For reading, the results were more contrasted, with large between-group effect sizes for accuracy and speed for trained items, reducing to a small effect for accuracy on the delayed posttest. For untrained items, small effects were observed on accuracy (at both posttests) but not on speed. These results are very promising and argue in favor of using derivational morphology as a medium to improve literacy skills in French-speaking children and adolescents with DD.
Dysgraphia Differs Between Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder and/or Reading Disorder.
Jolly C, Jover M, Danna J
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 38284390 · Publisher ↗
Handwriting deficits, or dysgraphia, are present in several neurodevelopmental disorders. To investigate whether dysgraphia differs according to the associated disorder, we performed a detailed analysis of handwriting in...
Handwriting deficits, or dysgraphia, are present in several neurodevelopmental disorders. To investigate whether dysgraphia differs according to the associated disorder, we performed a detailed analysis of handwriting in a group of French children with developmental coordination disorders (DCD), reading disorder (RD), or comorbid RD and DCD. Handwriting deficits were investigated at the product (quality of the trace) and the process (movement that generates the trace) levels. Nineteen children with singular RD (among which eight with dysgraphia), 13 children with singular DCD (among which seven with dysgraphia), 16 children with comorbid RD+DCD (among which 11 with dysgraphia), and 20 typically developing children, age 7 to 12, performed the BHK (Brave Handwriting Kinder) test, a standardized assessment of handwriting, on a graphic tablet. Developmental coordination disorders primarily affected handwriting quality, while RD affected slowness and, to a lesser extent, quality. Children with RD, solely or comorbid with DCD, wasted time by lifting and stopping the pen when writing. The comorbidity added to but did not worsen, handwriting difficulties. These results reflect distinct motor impairments and/or strategies in children with DCD or RD. We identified subtypes of dysgraphia and advocated for a fine-grained analysis of the writing process and the assessment of motor and reading skills when studying dysgraphia.
Implementation Drivers of Data-Based Instruction for Students With Intensive Learning Needs: A Systematic Review.
Choi S, Shanahan E, Casey-Wilke B … +2 more , An J, Johnson L
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 38158822 · Publisher ↗
Despite decades of research efforts, data-based instruction (DBI) for students with intensive intervention needs are not being widely used in practice as anticipated, and many educators have difficulties in implementing...
Despite decades of research efforts, data-based instruction (DBI) for students with intensive intervention needs are not being widely used in practice as anticipated, and many educators have difficulties in implementing it. This systematic review aimed to examine what kinds of implementation drivers and strategies have been used to support educators implementing DBI and what kinds of implementation outcomes researchers have measured. Eighteen studies were synthesized using the Implementation Drivers framework and Implementation Outcomes taxonomy and were quality appraised. We found that the majority of studies primarily used competency drivers to increase teachers' DBI expertise, while a limited number of studies focused on organizational and leadership drivers. Acceptability and fidelity were frequently assessed as implementation outcomes. We discussed the implications of the findings, including the need for researchers to incorporate implementation drivers and outcomes at diverse levels to best support educators' implementation of DBI, as well as the limitations of this review, such as the limited generalizability of the findings.
Empowering Schools to Implement Effective Research-Based Reading Remediation Delivers Long-Lasting Improvements to Children's Reading Trajectories.
Panda EJ, Woehrle T, Frijters JC … +6 more , Moules R, Zolis S, Edwards E, Steinbach KA, De Palma M, Lovett MW
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 38149629 · Publisher ↗
There is a wide gap between what research evidence identifies as effective reading intervention and what is currently offered in schools. This effectiveness study reports the results of a long-term research/school system...
There is a wide gap between what research evidence identifies as effective reading intervention and what is currently offered in schools. This effectiveness study reports the results of a long-term research/school system partnership that is implementing reading intervention for children with reading difficulties in Canadian community schools. In Study 1, growth-curve analyses revealed significant long-term shifts in the reading trajectories of children ( = 731) from Kindergarten to Grade 5 as a function of receiving the Empower™ Reading: Decoding and Spelling intervention. Long-term outcomes were higher in children who received intervention in Grade 2 than in Grade 3, supporting the benefit of earlier intervention. In Study 2, we compare reading outcomes before and after children participated in school system-led intervention (Empower™ Reading, = 341) to results from previously reported researcher-led intervention and business-as-usual controls. Children in both school system-led and researcher-led interventions showed greater improvement than controls on standardized measures of decoding and reading comprehension. Among school system participants, greater gains were seen for those with stronger reading skills at pre-test. Findings demonstrate successful school system implementation of research-originated and validated reading intervention. Researcher/school system partnerships may be integral in closing the research-practice gap.
A Systematic Review of CBM Content in Practitioner-Focused Journals: Do We Talk About Instructional Decision-Making?
Fry EC, Toste JR, Feuer BR … +1 more , Espin CA
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 38059459 · Full text
Data-based decision-making (DBDM) using curriculum-based measurement (CBM) data has demonstrated effectiveness in improving academic achievement for students with or at risk for learning disability. Despite substantial e...
Data-based decision-making (DBDM) using curriculum-based measurement (CBM) data has demonstrated effectiveness in improving academic achievement for students with or at risk for learning disability. Despite substantial evidence supporting DBDM, its use is not common practice for many educators, even those who regularly collect CBM data. One explanation for its lack of widespread use is that educators may not receive adequate training in the DBDM aspects of CBM. Espin et al. examined the extent to which DBDM is represented in CBM professional development (PD) materials and found that the topic was significantly underrepresented (12% to 14% of CBM PD material content) compared with other CBM topics. The purpose of this study was to conduct a conceptual replication of the Espin et al. systematic review through an analysis of CBM content in practitioner journal articles. The present review includes 29 practitioner articles coded to the four CBM categories used in the Espin et al. study: (a) general CBM information, (b) conducting CBM, (c) data-based decision-making, and (d) other. Results revealed a pattern similar to the one found by Espin et al. with approximately 18% of the content of practitioner articles on CBM devoted to the topic of decision-making. These findings strengthen the recommendation from Espin et al. for increased attention to DBDM in CBM training materials.
Response to Intervention and Specific Learning Disability Identification: Evidence From Tennessee.
Gilmour AF, Harper J, Lloyd B … +1 more , Van Camp A
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 38047325 · Publisher ↗
Response to intervention (RTI) is a method for providing academic support to students and for identifying specific learning disabilities (SLDs). Using interrupted time series and hazard models, we examined if statewide R...
Response to intervention (RTI) is a method for providing academic support to students and for identifying specific learning disabilities (SLDs). Using interrupted time series and hazard models, we examined if statewide RTI adoption in the U.S. state of Tennessee was associated with changes in rates of SLD and first-time SLD identification in elementary schools, and if these associations varied across student groups. Response to intervention was associated with an initial decline in the percentage of students with SLD in the state that continued over time, with larger decreases for students who were Black or economically disadvantaged. Response to intervention was associated with a 61% average decrease in the odds of first-time SLD identification by third grade (about a 0.006 change in the predicted probability), with greater declines for students who were Black or economically disadvantaged. We discuss these results in the context of disproportionality in special education and the need for research examining whether declines in SLD were due to improved academic outcomes, as opposed to delays in identification.
Proficiency With Number Concepts and Operations: Replicating the Efficacy of a First-Grade Mathematics Intervention.
Doabler CT, Clarke B, Turtura JE … +7 more , Sutherland M, Gersib JA, Lesner T, Cook M, Kimmel GL, Smolkowski K, Kosty D
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 38014809 · Publisher ↗
Conceptual replications are part and parcel of education science. Methodologically rigorous conceptual replication studies permit researchers to test and strengthen the generalizability of a study's initial findings. The...
Conceptual replications are part and parcel of education science. Methodologically rigorous conceptual replication studies permit researchers to test and strengthen the generalizability of a study's initial findings. The current conceptual replication sought to replicate the efficacy of a small-group, first-grade mathematics intervention with 240 first-grade students with mathematics difficulties in a new geographical region. Participating students were randomized into one of three conditions: (a) 2:1 mathematics intervention group, (b) 5:1 mathematics intervention group, or (c) business-as-usual instruction. Relative to the original study, findings from the replication varied. When comparing the treatment groups to the control, results suggested positive effects on all outcome measures, including a follow-up assessment administered one year later. However, differences between the two treatment groups based on group size were not found in the mathematics outcome measures. Both groups also received commensurate levels of observed instructional interactions. Implications for unpacking contextual differences between original research and their replications as well as using future research to explore the quantity and quality of instructional interactions as ways to explain variation in findings of group size are discussed.
Measuring Instructional Interactions During Reading Instruction for Students Receiving Intervention in Middle School.
Baker SK, Kennedy PC, Richards D … +3 more , Nelson NJ, Fien H, Doabler CT
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 37962154 · Publisher ↗
More than two-thirds of middle school students do not read proficiently. Research has shown that targeted interventions using explicit instruction methods can improve reading outcomes for struggling readers. A central fe...
More than two-thirds of middle school students do not read proficiently. Research has shown that targeted interventions using explicit instruction methods can improve reading outcomes for struggling readers. A central feature of explicit instruction is the systematic implementation of instructional interactions, but it is not clear what specific instructional interaction practices lead to stronger outcomes for middle school readers. This study used a regression discontinuity design to compare the frequency and impact of instructional interactions experienced by U.S. eighth-grade students who received a targeted reading intervention ( = 1,461) with those who did not ( = 4,292). Results indicated that students who received intervention experienced far more instructional interactions with their teachers than did students who did not. However, the association between rates of interaction and student need in the intervention group was minimal, and the relationship between the rate of instructional interactions and reading growth was mixed. Implications for intervening with struggling students in the middle grades are discussed.
Perpetuating the Gaps: 21st-Century Skills in Students With Learning Disabilities and Their Typically Developing Peers.
Vaknin-Nusbaum V, Rachevski I
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 37961890 · Full text
This study examined whether there are differences between Israeli students with learning disabilities (LD) and their typically developing peers with regard to their 21st-century skills according to their self-report and...
This study examined whether there are differences between Israeli students with learning disabilities (LD) and their typically developing peers with regard to their 21st-century skills according to their self-report and whether the differences between the two groups are greater in postsecondary education than in high school-an aim that had not been examined in depth in previous research. Findings suggest that overall (beyond type of learner), in most skills, postsecondary education students reported higher scores than high school students on questionnaires designed for self-assessment of 21st-century skills. Second, students with LD exhibited lower scores in most 21st-century skills than their peers. Third, a comparison of the gaps in 21st-century skills between students with LD and their peers in each of the examined educational settings (i.e., high school vs postsecondary education) revealed that some of the gaps expand over the years, resulting in differences in additional skills. Results are discussed in the context of educational environment and its role in cultivating 21st-century skills and preparing students for integration into the labor market.
Primary School Teachers' Adaptations for Struggling Writers: Survey Study of Grade 1 to 6 Teachers in Australia.
Malpique A, Pino-Pasternak D, Valcan D … +1 more , Asil M
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 37960851 · Full text
Two hundred ninety-eight primary teachers (88% female) from across all Australian states and territories reported on the frequency with which they implemented instructional adaptations for struggling writers in their cla...
Two hundred ninety-eight primary teachers (88% female) from across all Australian states and territories reported on the frequency with which they implemented instructional adaptations for struggling writers in their classrooms. They also rated their preparation and self-efficacy for teaching writing. The majority of participating teachers indicated they provided additional instruction on spelling, capitalization and punctuation, and sentence construction at least once a week or more often. Teachers further reported implementing additional minilessons and reteaching strategies and skills, as well as extra instruction on grammar, handwriting, text structure, revising, and planning on a monthly basis or more often. The majority of teachers reported never or only once a year using adaptations to support digital writing. The frequency with which teachers provided extra instruction on spelling, handwriting, text structure, revising, and computer use differed by grade. Only teachers' perceived efficacy to teach writing made a unique and statistically significant contribution to predicting the use of instructional adaptations for writing and adaptations to support digital writing after controlling for teacher and classroom variables.
How Does Visual Temporal Processing Affect Chinese Character Reading in Children With Dyslexia? From the Perspective of Inhibition.
Jhuo RA, Yang HM, Tsai HJ … +1 more , Wang LC
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 37942894 · Publisher ↗
Given that inhibition interacts with visual temporal processing (VTP), the past evidence regarding the influence of VTP on the Chinese character reading of children with dyslexia may not disclose the whole picture withou...
Given that inhibition interacts with visual temporal processing (VTP), the past evidence regarding the influence of VTP on the Chinese character reading of children with dyslexia may not disclose the whole picture without considering inhibition. Thus, the present study is among the first to investigate VTP and cognitive inhibition as well as their relationships to Chinese character reading. We compared the performances of 62 Chinese-speaking children with dyslexia in primary school ( = 62, = 11.36 years) on VTP and inhibition tasks to those in a chronological-age-matched group (CA; = 62, = 11.57 years) and reading-level-matched group (RL; = 62, = 8.98 years). The results revealed that children with dyslexia performed worse than both the CA-matched and RL-matched groups in VTP and inhibition after controlling for age, nonverbal intelligence, and attention. Moreover, the relationship between VTP and Chinese character reading was moderated by inhibition in children with dyslexia. VTP is positively related to Chinese character reading, but this relationship is observed only at higher levels of inhibition. Our results suggest that inhibition plays a potential role in VTP and Chinese character reading, especially for those with dyslexia whose proficiency in inhibition is not as intact as that of typically developing children.
Reading Interventions for Students in Grades 3-12 With Significant Word Reading Difficulties.
Boucher AN, Bhat BH, Clemens NH … +2 more , Vaughn S, O'Donnell K
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 37937699 · Publisher ↗
Most students with reading difficulties struggle to read words. We examined intervention effects for students with word reading difficulties (SWRD; standard score of 80 on at least one pretest measure of word reading),...
Most students with reading difficulties struggle to read words. We examined intervention effects for students with word reading difficulties (SWRD; standard score of 80 on at least one pretest measure of word reading), which includes individuals with or at risk for dyslexia. We investigated: (a) What are the effects of reading interventions for students in Grades 3-12 with SWRD? and (b) What intervention features (i.e., instructional components and elements of dosage) are related to improved reading outcomes for the target population? A meta-analysis of 22 studies and 208 effect sizes revealed a statistically significant, positive, mean effect ( = 0.14, standard error [] = 0.04, = .01, 95% confidence interval [CI]: [0.04, 0.23]) of interventions for the target population. Subset analyses revealed positive, statistically significant intervention effects on measures of pseudoword reading ( = 0.38, = 0.07, = .0003, 95% CI [0.21, 0.54]) and pseudoword reading fluency ( = 0.29, = 0.09, = .010, 95% CI [0.09, 0.49]). Moderator analyses yielded statistically significant, positive effects associated with increased total hours of intervention, β = 0.003, = 0.0009, (8.31) = 3.58, = .007. Overall, findings indicate a need for interventions that improve generalized real-world reading for the target population.
Differential Switch Costs in Typically Achieving Children and Children With Mathematical Difficulties.
Endlich D, Lenhard W, Marx P … +1 more , Richter T
J Learn Disabil · 2024 · PMID 37905535 · Publisher ↗
Children with mathematical difficulties need to spend more time than typically achieving children on solving even simple equations. Since these tasks already require a larger share of their cognitive resources, additiona...
Children with mathematical difficulties need to spend more time than typically achieving children on solving even simple equations. Since these tasks already require a larger share of their cognitive resources, additional demands imposed by the need to switch between tasks may lead to a greater decline of performance in children with mathematical difficulties. We explored differential task switch costs with respect to switching between addition versus subtraction with a tablet-based arithmetic verification task and additional standardized tests in German elementary school children in Grades 1 to 4. Two independent studies were conducted. In Study 1, we assessed the validity of a newly constructed tablet-based arithmetic verification task in a controlled classroom-setting ( = 165). Then, effects of switching between different types of arithmetic operations on accuracy and response latency were analyzed through generalized linear mixed models in an online-based testing (Study 2; = 3,409). Children with mathematical difficulties needed more time and worked less accurately overall. They also exhibited a stronger performance decline when working in a task-switching condition, when working on subtraction (vs. addition) items and in operations with two-digit (vs. one-digit) operations. These results underline the value of process data in the context of assessing mathematical difficulties.
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