Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42398668
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Athletes in weight category sports frequently practice short-term weight loss to make weight, which often involves manipulating total body water. In Eastern medicine and phytotherapy, dandelion has long been considered t...Athletes in weight category sports frequently practice short-term weight loss to make weight, which often involves manipulating total body water. In Eastern medicine and phytotherapy, dandelion has long been considered to have a diuretic effect, yet empirical investigations of this effect are scarce. This study investigated whether the ingestion of a commercially available dandelion root powder with a large bolus of water acutely elicited a diuretic effect beyond the effect on urine output elicited by the bolus of water alone. In an open-label counterbalanced, crossover design with two separate laboratory visits, physically active young adults (n = 14; M/F, 12/2; age, 25.5 ± 4.7 years) ingested 1 L of still water with (DAND) or without (CON) four capsules providing a total of ∼2.1 g of a commercially available dandelion root powder. The primary outcome was cumulative urine output over the 4 hr following ingestion. Cumulative urine output was 1,164 ± 244 g in CON and 1,268 ± 213 g in DAND, with the mean difference (95% confidence interval) of 105 (-35 to 244) g (p = .13; g = 0.45). Under the experimental protocol employed, the commercially available form of dandelion ingested, the dosing strategy used, and the cohort investigated, cumulative urine output was similar regardless of whether dandelion root powder was co-ingested with a large bolus of water. These results indicate a lack of support for the purported diuretic effect of dandelion. Future studies should investigate different time courses, dosing strategies, and sources of dandelion, as well as study designs with greater ecological validity for weight category sports, before definitive conclusions can be made.
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42362109
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Ice hockey is a high-intensity intermittent team sport where games of 3 × 20-min periods involve on-ice shifts (typically lasting ∼30-80 s) interspersed with passive recovery periods (2-5 min). Playing requires endurance...Ice hockey is a high-intensity intermittent team sport where games of 3 × 20-min periods involve on-ice shifts (typically lasting ∼30-80 s) interspersed with passive recovery periods (2-5 min). Playing requires endurance, speed, strength, and balance in conjunction with technical, tactical, and cognitive abilities. Nutrition can play a valuable role in optimizing physical and mental performance and in maintaining overall health of ice hockey players. The aim of this review is to provide evidence-based nutrition guidelines for elite male ice hockey players. The energy demands during training sessions and games in ice hockey are not well investigated, but elite players typically cover 2.3-6.7 km in their 15-25 min of on-ice time during games. Carbohydrate (primarily muscle glycogen) is the major fuel during training and match play, and match performance has been shown to be associated with the pregame muscle glycogen content. Sweat losses are typically high (2.02 ± 0.74 L/hr) due to the high intensity and the use of protective equipment. Sufficient carbohydrate and fluid intake are therefore the most important nutritional considerations during training sessions, games, and recovery to maintain performance. Protein intake is important after training sessions and games to support muscle repair, growth, and overall recovery. Nutrition plans should be personalized and periodized to meet the demands of training sessions and games, and individual objectives. Players should prioritize food before supplements to meet nutrient requirements. While studies on supplementation are scarce, supplements that might be beneficial to some ice hockey players include Vitamin D, iron, caffeine, and creatine.
Jones RO, Louis J, Saunders B
… +4 more, Morton JP, Gejl K, Nielsen J, Areta JL
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42342234
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Carbohydrate loading (CL) has long been a cornerstone of endurance nutrition, yet its true efficacy remains uncertain. Although CL is commonly associated with improved time to fatigue and modest performance gains in exer...Carbohydrate loading (CL) has long been a cornerstone of endurance nutrition, yet its true efficacy remains uncertain. Although CL is commonly associated with improved time to fatigue and modest performance gains in exercise lasting ∼90-240 min, few studies have employed double-blind, placebo-controlled (DBPC) designs. Given that belief and expectation can independently influence performance, it remains unclear whether reported benefits reflect CL or placebo effects. We systematically evaluated the use of blinding and in-exercise carbohydrate provision in CL research. Of 14 identified studies, only two were DBPC trials. Notably, only four provided carbohydrates during exercise. Both DBPC studies included appropriate in-exercise carbohydrate intake and reported no evidence of performance benefit of CL. Of the remaining two studies that provided carbohydrates during exercise, CL showed a positive performance effect; however, the effect size was moderate and comparable to that reported for placebo nutritional interventions (Cohen's d ≈ 0.35). Comparisons across CL studies are heterogeneous in design, including differences in performance test type (time to exhaustion vs. time trial), which points to the need for more research in standardized conditions. The current evidence therefore calls for a re-evaluation of whether CL in the 24-48 hr before competition enhances performance once placebo effects are accounted for and in-race fueling is optimized. This commentary highlights the need for more DBPC studies and the potential role of placebo (such as belief) in observed performance outcomes. We propose future research directions to better isolate the independent contributions of CL and placebo effects in endurance performance.
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42315095
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Accurate monitoring of training load is vital for optimizing performance and reducing the risk of maladaptation, injury, or illness in cyclists. Training load quantification also informs nutrition planning, as daily ener...Accurate monitoring of training load is vital for optimizing performance and reducing the risk of maladaptation, injury, or illness in cyclists. Training load quantification also informs nutrition planning, as daily energy and macronutrient requirements are often adjusted based on exercise demands. Although a range of metrics is available, from power output-based measures to heart rate and perceived exertion indicators, students and early-career practitioners often encounter difficulties in selecting, calculating, and interpreting these indices. This methodology review outlines how to compute three commonly used training load metrics in cycling: training stress score, Edwards' training impulse, and session rating of perceived exertion. We provide step-by-step guidance on evaluating and predicting these metrics using practical, well-illustrated examples drawn from the data of a competitive cyclist. The methodology review includes the visualization and interpretation of relationships between metrics via scatterplots and regression analyses, both with and without intercepts, and in linear and curvilinear forms. We also introduce the use of partial correlation to examine associations between metrics while controlling for exercise duration thereby addressing a frequent confounding factor. A worked example illustrates how data can be used to derive session-specific carbohydrate and energy targets. By following the procedures outlined here, undergraduate and postgraduate students as well as early-career practitioners can enhance their understanding of training load monitoring and develop tailored strategies suited to individual cyclists and contextual constraints including training and nutrition periodization decisions. The included spreadsheet instructions and supplementary R script support replication and facilitate the integration of these methods into applied practice.
Haigney E, Waddell A, Korzepa M
… +3 more, Belfield AE, Liaset B, Breen L
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 Jun · PMID 42248424
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Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) impairs muscle function and subsequent performance. While research investigating the protective role of animal-derived protein is widespread, investigations into sustainable alternat...Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) impairs muscle function and subsequent performance. While research investigating the protective role of animal-derived protein is widespread, investigations into sustainable alternatives are lacking. The present study examined the effects of a novel, salmon-derived protein peptide (SPP) on muscle recovery. In a single-blind, parallel-design, 33 recreationally active adults (age: 23.9 ± 4.0 years, body mass index: 23.7 ± 4.0) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (a) SPP, (b) whey protein, or (c) carbohydrate control. In addition to a controlled 1.0 g·kg body mass-1·day-1 dietary protein intake, participants consumed either 0.9 g·kg body mass-1·day-1 supplemental protein or isoenergetic carbohydrate for 4 days following EIMD (10 × 10 unilateral eccentric knee extensions). Maximal voluntary contraction, countermovement jump height, muscle soreness, thigh circumference, creatine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were assessed at baseline and +1, +4, +24, +48, and +72 hr post EIMD. Significant time effects were observed for all variables. Countermovement jump height was greater in the SPP versus carbohydrate groups at +72 hr and across all time points when pooling the two protein groups, creating a higher protein versus normal protein group comparison. There were no significant group effects for all remaining outcomes. High-quality protein supplementation >1.0 g·kg body mass-1·day-1 appears to have only a modest effect on the rate of recovery following EIMD, with a potential role in alleviating muscle damage, particularly in the later stage of recovery. Furthermore, the SPP supplement was not inferior to a high-quality protein source (whey protein), indicating that it may represent a sustainable and effective alternative for muscle recovery.
Bittencourt de Santa Ritta G, Brito Soares LM, Abreu ACP
… +3 more, Mendes GF, Saunders B, Reis CEG
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 May · PMID 42208612
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This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine the effect of caffeine ingestion on female cycling performance. Three databases were systematically searched; studies were screened according to PICOS framework...This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine the effect of caffeine ingestion on female cycling performance. Three databases were systematically searched; studies were screened according to PICOS framework and PRISMA guidelines. Data were analyzed using a three-level meta-analytical model to account for the nesting of multiple performance outcomes within individual studies. Subgroup analyses assessed the influence of caffeine dose, training level, and menstrual cycle phase. Risk of bias was assessed using the RoB 2 tool; heterogeneity was assessed using the Q test and funnel plot analysis. Nineteen randomized crossover trials involving 235 females were included. The pooled analysis revealed a small and significant ergogenic effect of caffeine supplementation on cycling performance for females (standardized mean difference = 0.21; 95% confidence interval [0.11, 0.29]), with high certainty of evidence. Subgroup analysis showed a nonsignificant effect for caffeine dose (p = .79) and training level (p = .97), while caffeine significantly improved performance during the mid-luteal phase (standardized mean difference = 0.26; 95% confidence interval [0.06, 0.46]; p = .01) with no effect for other menstrual cycle phases (p > .11). Heterogeneity was nonsignificant, Q(36) = 7.99; p = 1.00, and overall risk of bias was rated as "some concerns." The limited clinical trials and inadequate menstrual cycle assessments preclude definitive conclusions regarding the effect of the menstrual cycle phases. These findings support the supplementation of caffeine to optimize performance in cycling for women.
Rothschild JA, Morton JP, Stewart T
… +2 more, Kilding AE, Plews DJ
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 May · PMID 42167359
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It is recommended that endurance athletes modulate their daily carbohydrate intake according to the demands of training, but there is limited evidence of how this is currently practiced by athletes during real-world, day...It is recommended that endurance athletes modulate their daily carbohydrate intake according to the demands of training, but there is limited evidence of how this is currently practiced by athletes during real-world, day-to-day training. The purpose of this observational study was to report the dietary intake of endurance athletes across a 12-week period with an emphasis on the relationship between training load and carbohydrate intake. Self-selected training and dietary intake were self-reported using a smartphone app by 46 endurance athletes (61% male) daily for 12 weeks, representing a total of 3,718 days of dietary assessments and 3,160 days of training. Fasted-state training was regularly performed by 65% of athletes and was more common in men (33.6% vs. 17.2% of training days, p = .023). Average daily carbohydrate intake for each athlete ranged from 1.2 to 7.2 g/kg (M = 3.9 ± 1.5). At the group level, significant correlations were found between mean daily carbohydrate intake and both percentage of training sessions performed in the fasted state (r = -.39, p = .008) and weekly training volume (r = .42, p = .004). Participant-level correlations between daily training load and carbohydrate intake ranged from -.42 to .83. Overall, athletes adjust daily carbohydrate intake based on exercise duration, but at the individual level, many athletes do not align carbohydrate intake with training load as recommended or do so with minimal adjustment.
Broad EM, Cunha CL, Caraveo LA
… +3 more, Acosta EA, Martín-Almena FJ, Vieira FS
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 May · PMID 42140613
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The International Standards for Anthropometric Assessment (International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry [ISAK]) have been developed and refined over a period of over 30 years in order to guide the landma...The International Standards for Anthropometric Assessment (International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry [ISAK]) have been developed and refined over a period of over 30 years in order to guide the landmarking and measurement of a wide range of surface anthropometrical variables in able-bodied individuals in order for such measures to be reliable, repeatable, and valid. While numerous researchers and practitioners have undertaken anthropometrical assessments on individuals with motor disability, there is a lack of consistency in the processes used, and the ISAK protocol currently does not guide adaptations for measurement or interpretation in this population. Therefore, the ISAK working group on motor disability has reviewed the literature and provided recommendations to follow when undertaking and interpreting anthropometrical assessments in individuals with a motor disability. Prior to undertaking any assessment, practitioners and researchers are encouraged to first consider the purpose and validity of what they wish to measure in each individual, as they present with their own unique characteristics. Most importantly, the safety and dignity of each individual must be respected.
Mnif M, Romdhani M, Bentouati E
… +4 more, Ben Yahia M, Souabni M, Driss T, Souissi N
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42086212
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The study aimed to examine the independent and combined effects of a 90-min early afternoon (12:30 p.m.) nap (NAP) and an early evening (6:00 p.m.) moderate dose of caffeine (CAF; 5 mg/kg) on afternoon's variation of sub...The study aimed to examine the independent and combined effects of a 90-min early afternoon (12:30 p.m.) nap (NAP) and an early evening (6:00 p.m.) moderate dose of caffeine (CAF; 5 mg/kg) on afternoon's variation of subjective sleepiness and reaction time and evening (7:00 p.m.) physical performance. In a randomized, counterbalanced, and double-blind design, 13 physical education students completed four conditions separated by 3-7 days: placebo (PLA), NAP, CAF, and combined nap plus caffeine (NAP + CAF). Assessments included simple and choice reaction times and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale at 12:30 p.m., before napping/resting, and every hour between 3:00 p.m. and 7:00 p.m. Jumping performance (squat jump and countermovement jump) and the repeated modified agility test were assessed once at 7:00 p.m. No significant effects of CAF, NAP, and CAF + NAP on simple reaction time, choice reaction time, and Epworth Sleepiness Scale were found. Repeated modified agility test performance improved across all interventions compared with PLA, with no difference between interventions. All interventions enhanced squat jump performance relative to PLA, with the greatest improvements observed under NAP + CAF compared with CAF (p < .05, d = 0.37, mean difference [MD] = 1.92 cm; p < .05, d = 0.38, MD = 0.07 m/s; p < .05, d = 0.01, MD = 0.01 W/kg) and NAP (p < .01, d = 0.63, MD = 2.91 cm; p < .01, d = 0.68, MD = 0.11 m/s; p < .01, d = 0.02, MD = 0.02 W/kg), respectively, for squat jump, take-off velocity, and relative power. Napping and caffeine independently enhanced repeated agility and explosivity performances, and their combination had no additional benefits on repeated agility. However, the combination further enhanced explosivity, which may benefit evening competitions in team and racket sports. Its limited effects on nonexplosive tasks and potential sleep disruption constrain broader application.
Jesus F, Francisco R, Bernardino AV
… +7 more, Nunes CL, Dickinson SL, Rocha P, Minderico CS, Sardinha LB, Schoeller DA, Silva AM
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42019936
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BACKGROUND: Water turnover (rH2O) is related to water balance including preformed water intake (WI), metabolic, inspired, and transcutaneous water. Literature is scarce on athletes. This study aimed to estimate and compa...BACKGROUND: Water turnover (rH2O) is related to water balance including preformed water intake (WI), metabolic, inspired, and transcutaneous water. Literature is scarce on athletes. This study aimed to estimate and compare rH2O and its components during one athletic season (preparatory and competition phases), adjusting for body composition and energy expenditure (EE). METHODS: This longitudinal observational study included 112 athletes (19.8 ± 4.9 years, 39 females). Doubly labeled water determined total EE, rH2O, and the remaining components through specific equations. Total body water was determined by deuterium dilution and fat-free mass by the four-compartment model. Resting EE was assessed by indirect calorimetry. RESULTS: During the preparatory phase, male athletes showed higher rH2O [5.03 (0.14) kg/day] compared with females [3.64 (0.19) kg/day, p < .001], even adjusting for body mass (p = .024), but not for fat-free mass, total body water, and EE. Triathletes showed higher values of rH2O after adjustments (p < .05). Over the athletic season, no changes occurred for rH2O or preformed WI within or between sexes or sports, even adjusting for body composition while some changes occurred adjusting for EE (p < .05). Over the season, metabolic water increased (p < .001), while inspired and transcutaneous water showed both increases and reductions (p < .05). A small prevalence (∼16%) of low WI (WI ≤ 35 ml/kg of body mass/day) was persistent in both timepoints. CONCLUSION: While rH2O and preformed WI did not differ over the season, cross-sectional differences were observed between sports but not between sexes, highlighting the variability of rH2O and impact of contributing factors. Low preformed WI was present throughout the athletic season.
Narang BJ, Atkinson G, Gonzalez JT
… +1 more, Betts JA
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 Jul · PMID 42019931
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Discrete time-series measurements collected at predefined timepoints are widely used in sport nutrition and exercise metabolism research, including tolerance tests, tracer studies, and physiological responses to experime...Discrete time-series measurements collected at predefined timepoints are widely used in sport nutrition and exercise metabolism research, including tolerance tests, tracer studies, and physiological responses to experimental interventions. These data sets are commonly summarized using derived metrics such as area under the curve. The original Time Series Response Analyser, introduced in 2020 as a spreadsheet-based tool, aimed to standardize these calculations and reduced the risk of manual errors. However, spreadsheet implementations can be difficult to maintain, extend, and version control, and provide limited transparency regarding exactly how outputs are derived. Here, we present Time Series Response Analyser v2.0, a web-based successor designed to improve accessibility, usability, and long-term maintainability while preserving the analytical purpose of the original tool. The application runs in a standard web browser and guides users through a structured workflow consisting of data setup, file interpretation screening, interactive analysis, and export of results. It retains the core summary metrics of the original version while expanding visualization capabilities and export options. In summary, Time Series Response Analyser v2.0 is a free, open-source web-based application for researchers analyzing discrete time-series experiments across both repeated-measures and independent-groups designs, supporting transparent and reproducible analytical workflows while enabling future development through a code-based platform.
Arnaoutis G, Vallas G, Toubekis AG
… +1 more, Nomikos T
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 Apr · PMID 42019929
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Beetroot juice (BRJ) has been proposed as an ergogenic aid due to its high nitrate content, yet evidence from field-based studies in elite swimmers remains limited. This study investigated the acute effects of concentrat...Beetroot juice (BRJ) has been proposed as an ergogenic aid due to its high nitrate content, yet evidence from field-based studies in elite swimmers remains limited. This study investigated the acute effects of concentrated BRJ ingestion on performance and physiological responses during repeated maximal 200-m front-crawl efforts in elite male swimmers. Twelve elite swimmers (age: 20 ± 2 years, body fat: 7.1% ± 2.5%, 200-m personal best: 115.7 ± 3.4 s) completed a randomized, double-blind, counterbalanced trial. Participants consumed either 140 ml of concentrated BRJ (Beet It Sport) or a custom-made, nitrate-depleted placebo (PL) matched for sensory characteristics, 2 hr before performing two maximal 200-m front-crawl time trials, separated by 60 min of passive recovery. Blood samples were collected upon arrival and immediately after each time trials, and 200-m completion time, blood lactate concentrations, and ratings of perceived exertion were recorded. No significant differences were observed in completion time for either the first (PL: 116.7 ± 3.0 vs. BRJ: 117.2 ± 3.1 s, p = .19) or the second 200-m time trial (PL: 117.8 ± 2.6 vs. BRJ: 117.8 ± 3.3 s, p = .98), nor in the change between trials (PL: 1.1 ± 1.5 vs. BRJ: 0.5 ± 1.3 s, p = .40). Likewise, lactate concentrations and ratings of perceived exertion values did not differ between conditions (p > .05). In conclusion, acute BRJ supplementation did not enhance 200-m front-crawl performance, lactate responses, or perceived exertion in elite swimmers under competition-like conditions.
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 Jul · PMID 41956455
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Although dietary fiber is widely recognized for its health benefits in the general population, including reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and improved metabolic regulation, its role in athletic performance and reco...Although dietary fiber is widely recognized for its health benefits in the general population, including reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and improved metabolic regulation, its role in athletic performance and recovery remains comparatively underexplored. Current sports nutrition guidelines lack specific recommendations for fiber intake, despite evidence linking adequate consumption to gut microbiome stability, immune modulation, and body composition optimization. Athletes face unique physiological demands that influence gastrointestinal tolerance, nutrient absorption, and energy availability, particularly under high training loads. Although excessive fiber intake may lead to gastrointestinal discomfort or reduced caloric intake, moderate and periodized consumption has been associated with enhanced immune function, improved energy metabolism, and preservation of skeletal muscle mass. Recent findings suggest potential benefits in attenuating exercise-induced inflammation and regulating substrate utilization. Nevertheless, observational data indicate that many athletes fail to meet general population intake targets, often due to precompetition dietary restrictions or concerns about digestive comfort. This review critically synthesizes current evidence on the physiological impacts of dietary fiber in athletic populations, focusing on gastrointestinal health, immune function, body composition, and performance outcomes. It further outlines practical, evidence-based strategies to optimize intake according to individual needs and sport-specific demands, including fiber periodization, source selection, and gradual adaptation.
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 May · PMID 41946455
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In elite road cycling, nutrition is a critical pillar of performance, with culinary support evolving from a logistical necessity to a core competitive determinant. The collaboration among performance chefs, registered di...In elite road cycling, nutrition is a critical pillar of performance, with culinary support evolving from a logistical necessity to a core competitive determinant. The collaboration among performance chefs, registered dietitian/nutritionist(s), and soigneurs, collectively termed the Culinary Nutrition Team, is central to translating evidence-based nutrition strategies into practical, palatable food provision. Through an applied lens, this review positions the Culinary Nutrition Team as the operational link through which complex nutrition, physiological, and sport science principles are translated and delivered in day-to-day practice within professional road cycling. The overlapping skill sets of Culinary Nutrition Team members are described, alongside respective roles and responsibilities, in executing nutrition strategies through real-time menu adjustments, management of special dietary needs, and adaptation to environmental and logistical challenges. While common principles underpin effective culinary nutrition support, how those principles are executed in practice is shaped by practitioner training and scope of practice, team structure and maturity, communication pathways, staff dynamics and trust, and the broader cultural and logistical context in which teams operate. In this context, digital tools and technologies (e.g., workload-derived data integration, centralized nutrition management platforms, and biometric wearables) are gaining prominence as innovative approaches to inform energy requirements, support rapid food provision adjustments, and facilitate team-wide communication. However, their effectiveness depends on appropriate validation, integration within established workflows, regulatory approval for in-race, and skilled interpretation. Ultimately, an athlete-centered, systems-based approach to culinary nutrition support embedded within the wider performance team is no longer a marginal gain but a competitive necessity in modern professional road cycling.
Burke LM, Gonzalez JT, Areta JL
… +5 more, Kuikman MA, Coates AM, Bailey DM, Moran J, Dolan E
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 May · PMID 41911915
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Maintaining adequate energy availability is a key concern for many cyclists, many of whom must balance the need to support their very high training and competition energy expenditure while simultaneously adopting nutriti...Maintaining adequate energy availability is a key concern for many cyclists, many of whom must balance the need to support their very high training and competition energy expenditure while simultaneously adopting nutritional strategies that will allow them to maintain the body mass deemed most conducive to optimal performance. Available evidence indicates that cyclists tend to be a weight-conscious group that frequently reports engaging in restrictive eating behaviors. Together, the dual demands of supporting the energetic cost of their training alongside restricting energy intake to maintain a low body mass may place some riders at a high risk of experiencing negative health- and performance-related consequences associated with prolonged and problematically low energy availability. Within this review, we critically discuss issues related to the role of body mass and composition in cycling performance along with cyclists' reported perceptions on this issue. We also describe evidence on reported energy expenditure and intake in high-level cyclists, recognizing the challenges of accurate assessment of these parameters, particularly within the field setting. Evidence related to signs and signals of problematic low energy availability in cyclists is described, also recognizing the complexity of determining causality for longer term low energy availability consequences alongside identifying other potential contributory factors to the symptomatology reported for this population. Finally, we make pragmatic recommendations to support cyclists to meet their physique goals while simultaneously emphasizing and supporting longer term health, performance, and well-being.
Jeukendrup AE, Redegeld M, Martins G
… +5 more, Whitfield J, Burke LM, Mujika I, Dolan E, Gonzalez JT
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab
· 2026 May · PMID 41911900
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This review outlines recent advances in race nutrition support for professional road cycling, emphasizing individualized, context-specific strategies over generic recommendations. Within the past couple of decades, there...This review outlines recent advances in race nutrition support for professional road cycling, emphasizing individualized, context-specific strategies over generic recommendations. Within the past couple of decades, there have been several changes in nutritional demands and practices within road cycling including (1) a change in the distribution of intensity across a stage or 1-day race; (2) an increase in "on-bike" carbohydrate intake coinciding with integrated "training the gut" practices; and (3) better maintenance of neutral energy balance across stage races. Specifically, race tactics now, generally demand a higher intensity earlier within a stage (or 1-day race), thereby also increasing energy and carbohydrate requirements and utilization early on within a stage. Concomitantly, there has been an increase in reported intake of carbohydrates "on-bike," from ∼30 to 60 g/hr pre-2010, to 90 and even 120 g/hr and higher in the present day. There is also evidence that the maintenance of energy balance across stage races has improved over this timeframe. These topics are discussed in detail alongside additional nutritional challenges and strategies relevant to professional road cycling, such as daily energy, fluid, and macronutrient distribution, which are often tailored to rider characteristics (e.g., body size, role, performance goals) and race-specific factors (e.g., course profile, environmental conditions).