Meticulous determination of the time since death (TSD) is critical in certain criminal investigations. This study aimed to identify optimal markers for TSD estimation and develop a mathematical model applicable under var...Meticulous determination of the time since death (TSD) is critical in certain criminal investigations. This study aimed to identify optimal markers for TSD estimation and develop a mathematical model applicable under varying conditions. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and β-Actin (ACTB) mRNA levels were analyzed in 10 human skeletal muscle samples using real-time quantitative PCR at eight time intervals (6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, and 48 h) within 48 h postmortem at 25°C. Among the candidate markers, GAPDH demonstrated the strongest correlation with times since death. At the same time, ACTB expression remained comparatively stable across all samples and time points as identified by RefFinder (reference gene analysis tool). Mathematical equations were developed using the C values for GAPDH, ACTB, and ΔC (GAPDH-ACTB) and the cubic model gave the highest determination of coefficient while the error rates were low in the quadratic model. The findings indicate that ACTB is an optimal marker for estimating TSD within the 30 to 36-h postmortem interval, while GAPDH is more suitable for the 36 to 48-h period.
The connective tissue support of female pelvic viscera-endopelvic fascia-has been studied in fetal and immunohistochemical models to demonstrate its relationship with the autonomic nerves of the female pelvis. Due to a p...The connective tissue support of female pelvic viscera-endopelvic fascia-has been studied in fetal and immunohistochemical models to demonstrate its relationship with the autonomic nerves of the female pelvis. Due to a paucity of literature examining the gross anatomical relationships between endopelvic fascia and autonomic nerves in adult female pelvises, it remains unknown whether defects in endopelvic fascia predisposing pelvic organ prolapse and/or manipulation of endopelvic fascia during prolapse repair may be the cause of prolapse-related pelvic pain and sexual dysfunction. Through the dissection of formalin-fixed hemipelvises (n = 10) the present study aimed to map the loci of the visceral branches of the inferior hypogastric plexus and associate them with endopelvic fascia of the female pelvis. In all specimens, two gross bundles of autonomic nerves were identified within pubocervical fascia traveling caudally to innervate the clitoral crura, vestibular bulbs, and anterior vaginal wall. Moreover, a distinct bundle was found traveling within the rectovaginal septum innervating the posterior vaginal wall. Immunohistochemical staining for S100 protein confirmed the presence of nerves and ganglia within pubocervical fascia that were localized near the vaginal arteries. Additionally, our dissections revealed that the visceral branches of the inferior hypogastric plexus can be stratified to correspond to different named components of endopelvic fascia. Clinically, our results provide a robust anatomical characterization that will inform the development of surgical approaches to reduce the risk of pelvic neuropathy during vaginal prolapse surgery.
The postglenoid foramen (PGF) is a rarely reported anatomical variant of the temporal bone, with limited data on its morphology, prevalence, and clinical relevance, particularly in non-European populations. This study ai...The postglenoid foramen (PGF) is a rarely reported anatomical variant of the temporal bone, with limited data on its morphology, prevalence, and clinical relevance, particularly in non-European populations. This study aimed to investigate the anatomy and frequency of foramina located on the squamous part of the temporal bone, including the PGF, and to propose a classification system based on their anatomical positions. A total of 117 human skulls (234 sides), including both dried and Thiel-embalmed specimens, were examined through gross observation, cadaveric dissection, and computed tomography (CT) in selected cases. Foramina were localized relative to the postglenoid process (PGP) and zygomatic arch, and classified accordingly. Foramina were identified in 48 skulls (41.0%) and 67 sides (28.6%), with no significant difference between left and right sides (p = 1.00). Based on anatomical location, three main types were identified: preglenoid (76.7%), postglenoid (6.8%), and supra-arcuate (16.4%). Three foramina were found to communicate with the middle cranial fossa, confirmed by CT imaging. The proposed classification provides a practical framework for describing their positional variation. These findings are of clinical importance, particularly in surgical planning and radiologic interpretation, as such foramina may serve as conduits for venous communication or infection. Further studies are warranted to explore their histological structure and developmental origins.
Urogenital epithelium replaces the original paramesonephric (Müllerian) epithelium in the human fetal vagina. We re-investigated this cell replacement histologically and with three-dimensional reconstructions. In the les...Urogenital epithelium replaces the original paramesonephric (Müllerian) epithelium in the human fetal vagina. We re-investigated this cell replacement histologically and with three-dimensional reconstructions. In the lesser pelvis, both Müllerian ducts fuse to form the uterovaginal canal. Its large caudal "head" is flanked by the locally widened Wolffian ducts. In the 9th week, the urogenital epithelium that covers the Müllerian tubercle differentiates into small, dense-staining basal cells and columnar "clear cells" apically. Mesonephric (Wolffian-duct) outlet epithelium in contact with clear cells degenerates and is replaced by clear-cell epithelium. Meanwhile, the small cells of the urogenital-sinus epithelium form a funnel that physically contacts the underlying uterovaginal head, locally breaks down its basement membrane, and establishes a bridgehead. Here, extensive cell mixing of urogenital and Müllerian cells produces a "transformational" epithelium with regressing Müllerian and healthy urogenital cells as components. After spreading throughout the vaginal epithelium, the urogenital cells near their incursion site under the Wolffian-duct outlets begin to produce the bilateral "vaginal plates." Its cells surround the transformational epithelium as a deflated double-layered cell plate. Where the vaginal plates contact the transformational epithelium, the epithelial cell layer thickens, its surface becomes rugged, and large regressive cells become numerous. The number of regressive cells drops precipitously in the adjacent vaginal plates, implying that this band of cells functions as a "purging zone." Once the purging process reaches the midline, the vaginal epithelium consists of urogenital cells only. Their arrangement as a deflated double-layered cell plate temporally occludes the vaginal lumen.
The microvasculature of peripheral nerve not only is important for the understanding of the development of compression syndromes, but it plays a critical role in the evolution of other nerve pathologies, including, for e...The microvasculature of peripheral nerve not only is important for the understanding of the development of compression syndromes, but it plays a critical role in the evolution of other nerve pathologies, including, for example, the distribution of intraneural ganglion cysts and lymphoma. We investigated the anatomical course of vessels around the human sciatic nerve and its bifurcation in eight human cadavers. Specifically, the presence of fenestrations on the epineurium and paraneurium's thickness in relation to the intraneural vessels was investigated. The sciatic, tibial, peroneal and sural nerves at the level of the bifurcation are surrounded by different layers, including the epineurium and paraneurial layers. Multiple fenestrations were observed in all membranes surrounding these nerves, which formed openings for the transfer of adipocytes and vessels from one compartment to the neighboring one. The openings were relatively large compared to the size of the vessels. In conclusion, vessels always travel through a natural opening in the paraneurial and epineurium. These vessels are important connections between the extrinsic and intrinsic nerve vasculature. In addition, the fenestration provides an important anatomical explanation for the possibility of transfer of anesthetic agents or different nerve pathologies, including intraneural ganglion cyst and tumors.
In 1922, Lewis published a study of in vitro plasma clot culture of vascular endothelium. In the 1950-1960s, the use of electron microscopy allowed us to demonstrate the presence in endothelial cells of specific organell...In 1922, Lewis published a study of in vitro plasma clot culture of vascular endothelium. In the 1950-1960s, the use of electron microscopy allowed us to demonstrate the presence in endothelial cells of specific organelles, including plasmalemmal vesicles and Weibel-Palade bodies, and the existence of structural heterogeneity. In 1980, Folkman and Haudenschild demonstrated that capillary endothelial cells can organize themselves in vitro in three-dimensional branching tubular networks. In 1983, Montesano and coworkers demonstrated that when a monolayer of microvascular endothelial cells on the surface of a collagen gel is covered with a second layer of collagen, it reorganizes within a few days into a network of branching and anastomosing tubules.
Head, neck, and neuroanatomy are essential components of physical therapy education due to their broad clinical applications. Detailed syllabi exist for medical students, yet none have been developed for physical therapy...Head, neck, and neuroanatomy are essential components of physical therapy education due to their broad clinical applications. Detailed syllabi exist for medical students, yet none have been developed for physical therapy. This study aimed to produce an International Federation of Associations of Anatomists core head, neck, and neuroanatomy syllabus specifically for physical therapy students. A Delphi panel of 45 anatomists and clinicians from 18 countries reviewed 978 head, neck, and neuroanatomy items across five sections: general nervous system; bones and muscles of the head and neck; nasal and oral cavities, pharynx and larynx; the brain; cranial nerves, special senses, and neural pathways (including the autonomic nervous system). Items were rated based on the knowledge required of a minimally competent physical therapy student and categorized as core, recommended, not recommended, or not core. Of the 1001 items in the final topic list, 675 (67%) were rated as core or recommended. For the brain, 85% (311/366) of items were core/recommended, followed by the general nervous system (38/50, 75%) and cranial nerves, special senses, and neural pathways (206/272, 76%). Less than half of the items in the other two categories were considered core/recommended-bones and muscles of the head and neck (108/222, 49%) and nasal and oral cavities, pharynx and larynx (12/91, 13%). This syllabus guides anatomy and physical therapy educators and students in the study of head, neck, and neuroanatomy, emphasizing central nervous system over musculoskeletal and visceral structures.
Medical anatomy education has traditionally relied on lectures, hands-on prosection, and textbooks, with recent enhancements through digital materials. This study investigates the integration of virtual reality (VR) tech...Medical anatomy education has traditionally relied on lectures, hands-on prosection, and textbooks, with recent enhancements through digital materials. This study investigates the integration of virtual reality (VR) technology in anatomy education and its impact on student engagement, metacognitive development, and learning outcomes. Through two experimental cycles with first-year medical students, the VR application was evaluated across key usability dimensions, including engagement, engrossment, and total immersion, alongside its contribution to fostering metacognitive strategies through metacognitive dimensions. Results demonstrated high levels of student engagement, with 3D anatomical structures emerging as the most valued feature. The usability evaluations indicated the platform's intuitive design; although some technical barriers highlighted the need for improved onboarding and tutorials. Emotional attachment to the application was significant, whereas the focus of attention and presence demonstrated areas for growth, requiring more dynamic and interactive content. The findings emphasize the potential of VR to complement traditional anatomy education by providing immersive and interactive learning experiences. However, challenges such as limited content depth, the need for collaborative features, and better alignment with curricular objectives were identified. Future work should prioritize expanding the range of 3D anatomical structures, integrating personalized feedback through advanced analytics, and reducing technological barriers to accessibility. By addressing these areas, VR technology can serve as a transformative tool in medical education, bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application while equipping students with the skills and strategies necessary for their professional development.
In classical gross anatomy instruction, we do not routinely discuss physical beauty and shape in anatomy. However, beauty and shape in anatomy, particularly in certain regions of the body, are of primary interest to aest...In classical gross anatomy instruction, we do not routinely discuss physical beauty and shape in anatomy. However, beauty and shape in anatomy, particularly in certain regions of the body, are of primary interest to aesthetic plastic surgeons. In recent years, a remarkable increase has occurred in patients' requests for gluteal augmentation procedures to reshape their buttocks into what they surmise will result in a more attractive form than what they currently display. Accordingly, there are many articles in the plastic surgery literature that attempt to define the ideal buttocks (mainly for women, but also for men). These articles routinely provide information on how gluteal anatomy defines the appearance of the buttocks and how this anatomy can be modified to produce a more ideal buttocks postoperatively. In some cases, these articles also refer to putative anatomical structures that are not in the normal anatomical lexicon (e.g., fat compartments). Here, we review the pertinent articles in the cosmetic surgery literature that relate buttock beauty to the underlying anatomy with the aim of instructing anatomists how plastic surgeons determine buttock anatomical beauty and some of the uncommon anatomical features that they rely upon.
While some health science professional programs may utilize a team to teach anatomy, they are often anatomists or professionals from the same field. The purpose of this study was to investigate the perspectives of health...While some health science professional programs may utilize a team to teach anatomy, they are often anatomists or professionals from the same field. The purpose of this study was to investigate the perspectives of health professional students on the incorporation of interdisciplinary team teaching comprised primarily of an anatomist, physical therapist, and a medical doctor to collectively teach a small group anatomy curriculum. The medical students (MS; N = 179 and N = 174), dental students (DS; N = 90), and physical therapy students (PT; N = 25) were enrolled in a human anatomy course between January 2023 and December 2023 and were invited to participate in this survey. Most students affirmed that each team member provided diverse perspectives to apply the anatomy to clinical settings, offering valuable insights and guidance for upper-level courses and their careers. They acknowledged that different team members excelled in specific content areas, and even though students did not often specifically target a faculty member for various topics, collectively, the diverse teaching team aided in facilitating a well-rounded learning experience. Students expressed high satisfaction with their professional school anatomy course, which was co-taught by an interdisciplinary team. Although students had access to faculty from different professions, they generally did not seek out specific faculty for field-related inquiries. They preferred to interact with the main teaching faculty, which included the primary anatomist, medical doctor, and physical therapist.
Given the challenges of teaching and learning anatomy, it is vital to explore tools that enhance knowledge and understanding. In line with this need, this study aimed to develop a web-based learning module with ChatGPT-b...Given the challenges of teaching and learning anatomy, it is vital to explore tools that enhance knowledge and understanding. In line with this need, this study aimed to develop a web-based learning module with ChatGPT-based artificial intelligence-supported virtual manipulatives to enhance anatomy education and assess its efficacy. The ADDIE model was adopted for the instructional design process. By employing a mixed-method research design, the effects of this learning module on the students' academic achievement, cognitive load, retention, and perceptions were analyzed. In the quantitative research phase, a quasi-experimental pre- and posttest design was used to examine the effects of academic achievement and cognitive load, using the academic achievement test and cognitive load scale. Qualitative data were gathered via an interview form developed by the researchers. The results of the research demonstrate that the instructional design model that incorporates artificial intelligence-based virtual manipulatives, is an effective approach to learning anatomy, with a notable impact on academic achievement and a reduction in cognitive load. While the students' perceptions of their educational experiences showed that the usability of the web module was well-received and ChatGPT was adopted as a study companion, both positive and negative comments were made regarding the use of virtual manipulatives and ChatGPT. This study suggests that AI and virtual manipulatives may offer a promising alternative to traditional learning, providing an innovative framework for teaching and learning of anatomy.
The ossification of carotico-clinoid ligament (CCL) has been claimed to be a risk factor for blood flow compromise in the corresponding internal carotid artery (ICA). Despite its seriousness, this concept has not been di...The ossification of carotico-clinoid ligament (CCL) has been claimed to be a risk factor for blood flow compromise in the corresponding internal carotid artery (ICA). Despite its seriousness, this concept has not been distinctly examined in the literature. A systematic review following the PRISMA-statement was conducted. Searches were performed in PubMed, MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, and Neurosurgery Atlas GPT for the terms "carotico-clinoid ligament and foramen" in various formats. The clinical role of these structures (focusing on blood flow in ICA) was examined. A global survey targeting neuro-related doctors was conducted to capture the current perspectives of professionals in the field about these structures regarding compromising blood supply to ICA. A bibliometric analysis using Vos viewer was performed to visualize the status of these structures in literature. 59 publications were identified from 1935 through 2024 in the PubMed, MEDLINE, and Neurosurgery Atlas GPT databases. The majority of these publications came out in the last 12 years. No case reports supported the claim that ossified CCL could compromise the ICA and brain blood supply. There were 63 respondents from 14 different countries who addressed the questionnaire. Responses from five neuro-related specialties were analyzed, but neurologists (zero respondents). No one reported personal experience or awareness that CCF could compromise blood flow to the ICA. Vos viewer analysis showed that endoscopic neurosurgical approaches enhanced the understanding of CCL in the last decade. No evidence was found to support that the ossified CCL could compromise the ICA or brain blood supply.
This study evaluates the performance of ChatGPT-4o (OpenAI), DeepSeek-v3 (DeepSeek), Gemini 2.0 (Google DeepMind), and Claude 3.7 Sonnet (Anthropic) in answering anatomy questions from the Turkish Dental Specialty Admiss...This study evaluates the performance of ChatGPT-4o (OpenAI), DeepSeek-v3 (DeepSeek), Gemini 2.0 (Google DeepMind), and Claude 3.7 Sonnet (Anthropic) in answering anatomy questions from the Turkish Dental Specialty Admission Exam (DUS). The study aims to compare their accuracy, response times, and answer lengths. A total of 74 text-based multiple choice anatomy questions from the Turkish Dental Specialty Admission Exam (DUS) administered between 2012 and 2021 were analyzed in this study. The questions varied in difficulty and included both basic anatomical identification and clinically oriented scenarios, with a majority focusing on head and neck anatomy, followed by thorax, neuroanatomy, and musculoskeletal regions, which are particularly relevant to dental education. The accuracy of answers was evaluated against official sources, and response times and word counts were recorded. Statistical analyses, including the Kruskal-Wallis and Cochran's Q tests, were used to compare performance differences. ChatGPT-4o demonstrated the highest accuracy (98.6%), while the other models achieved the same rate of 89.2%. Gemini produced the fastest responses (mean: 4.47 s), whereas DeepSeek generated the shortest answers and Gemini the longest (p = 0.000). The differences in accuracy, response times, and word count were statistically significant (p < 0.05). ChatGPT-4o outperformed other models in accuracy for DUS anatomy questions, suggesting its superior potential as a tool for dental education. Future research should explore the integration of LLMs into structured learning programs.
Florence R. Sabin and P. D. F. Murray first proposed that both the endothelial and hematopoietic lineages are derived from a common precursor, the "hemangioblast" in the blood islands of the yolk sac. In the course of ti...Florence R. Sabin and P. D. F. Murray first proposed that both the endothelial and hematopoietic lineages are derived from a common precursor, the "hemangioblast" in the blood islands of the yolk sac. In the course of time, data from avian, mice, and human embryos consistently show a close association between endothelial and hematopoietic compartments. These findings confirm that a common precursor or "hemangioblast" is conserved between species during early development.
The increasing adoption of digital tools has transformed how learning and teaching are delivered in anatomy. Digital anatomy is maturing from its nascent nature and emerges as a new discipline of great importance. This a...The increasing adoption of digital tools has transformed how learning and teaching are delivered in anatomy. Digital anatomy is maturing from its nascent nature and emerges as a new discipline of great importance. This article discusses topical areas in digital anatomy education pertinent to the development of the anatomical science discipline in the future.
Nakajo M, Mori S, Nakayama H
… +12 more, Yoshiura T, Xu S, Rimmer M, Sato T, Sato M, Malik V, Salamon N, Zhong X, Nguyen KL, Finn JP, Peacock WJ, Shivkumar K
Reports of visualization of the stellate ganglion via magnetic resonance imaging date back to the early 1990s. However, such imaging has not been fully utilized, presumably due to vagueness of its topographic anatomy, sm...Reports of visualization of the stellate ganglion via magnetic resonance imaging date back to the early 1990s. However, such imaging has not been fully utilized, presumably due to vagueness of its topographic anatomy, small size, suboptimal image quality, and limited reproducibility. Considering the recent advancements in the field of neuroradiological imaging, including magnetic resonance neurography, and emerging interests regarding cardiac neuroanatomy and neuromodulation, such as stellate ganglion phototherapy, it is time to revisit the anatomy and imaging of the stellate ganglion, as it largely controls the sympathetic tone of the heart. Quantification and qualification of the stellate ganglion can drive innovation in the management and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
Iwanaga J, Obata K, Kato T
… +15 more, Samrid R, Lesser ER, Cardona JJ, Kikuchi K, Kim CY, Ono K, D'Antoni A, Komune N, Tabira Y, Hur MS, Kitagawa N, Kim HJ, Loukas M, Watanabe K, Tubbs RS
Determining an appropriate sample size in human cadaveric studies remains a long-standing and unresolved challenge. Unlike other basic science fields, anatomical research is constrained by factors such as limited human d...Determining an appropriate sample size in human cadaveric studies remains a long-standing and unresolved challenge. Unlike other basic science fields, anatomical research is constrained by factors such as limited human donor availability, cultural considerations, and ethical restrictions. Despite these limitations, researchers are often asked to justify sample sizes, yet no standardized guidelines currently exist. To quantitatively assess sample sizes in recent human cadaveric studies and propose evidence-based recommendations for future research, a PubMed search was conducted on February 26, 2024, using the term human cadaveric study. The articles published in 2023 and 2024 were screened, yielding 770 eligible studies. Data extracted included the total sample size, number of classified groups, and journal impact factor (IF). Descriptive statistics, linear regression, and correlation analyses were performed. Continuous variables were summarized using medians and interquartile ranges (IQR). The median sample size was 11.5 (IQR: 7-20), and 47.9% of studies used 10 or fewer specimens. The median number of classified groups was 3 (IQR: 2-4). Linear regression showed that studies dividing specimens into 2-6 groups often failed to meet the recommended sample size per group based on regression modeling. No significant correlation was found between sample size and journal IF (r = -0.062, p = 0.115). Most cadaveric studies rely on small sample sizes due to inherent constraints, yet many still attempt a subgroup analysis without sufficient statistical power. Although flexibility is essential in anatomical research, we recommend a minimum total sample size of 10 for basic studies and at least five samples per group for those involving classification. Cadaveric sample size alone does not predict journal impact, highlighting the importance of methodological rigor over quantity.
Historically, human anatomy education has been an essential part of medical training, depending on cadaveric dissection and anatomical representations. However, financial and ethical limitations have resulted in a declin...Historically, human anatomy education has been an essential part of medical training, depending on cadaveric dissection and anatomical representations. However, financial and ethical limitations have resulted in a decline in conventional teaching techniques, necessitating the investigation of alternative resources such as digital drawings and artificial intelligence (AI). The aim of this research was to assess and compare the anatomical precision of graphics produced by four AI text-to-image generators: Microsoft Bing, DeepAI, Freepik, and Gemini, emphasizing their value in medical education. On February 6, 2025, four AI text-to-image generators were used. Prompts for creating intricate anatomical images included the human heart, brain, skeletal thorax, and hand bones. Two anatomists and a radiologist evaluated the pictures produced according to anatomical standards. Bing and Gemini generated anatomically correct representations of the human heart, but DeepAI and Freepik were less accurate. All generators offered accurate reconstructions of the human brain; however, there were disparities in sulci and gyri, with Gemini performing best. Only Gemini delivered a correct sternum; the other generators misrepresented the rib count. The Gemini platform provided a satisfactory depiction of the human hand skeleton, but the outputs from other text-to-image generators were not anatomically accurate. This work examines the potential of generative AI in medical illustration, noting significant limitations in accuracy and detail, especially with bony structures. Although AI accelerates the drawing process, it cannot replace the proficiency of skilled medical illustrators. Continuous assessment and improvement of AI-generated material are essential to ensure that the criteria mandated for medical education are met.