Clin Anat [JOURNAL]
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200 papers
Perceptions of Modernized Anatomy Teaching Tools and Methods: A Mixed Method Study Among Medical, Nursing Students and Faculty.
Nguyen QT, Hoang DM, Tran DLD … +3 more , Tran KH, Pham DP, Ha TM
Clin Anat · 2026 Mar · PMID 40631568 · Publisher ↗
Anatomy education is fundamental for medical and nursing students. There is a growing shift toward modern tools such as 3D applications, virtual dissection tables, and plastinated cadavers. This mixed-methods study at Vi...
Anatomy education is fundamental for medical and nursing students. There is a growing shift toward modern tools such as 3D applications, virtual dissection tables, and plastinated cadavers. This mixed-methods study at VinUniversity explored perceptions of these innovations. The quantitative component involved surveys of 142 students (131 medical, 11 nursing), achieving a 77.2% response rate, and the qualitative component included semi-structured interviews with all 12 anatomy faculty and nine students across cohorts, offering diverse insights into their experiences. The findings show that students value interactive tools for enhanced visualization and engagement, particularly the Complete Anatomy app and plastinated cadavers. Nursing students reported greater satisfaction with digital resources than did medical students (4.55 ± 0.69 vs. 4.04 ± 0.77, p = 0.026). Traditional lectures received lower ratings (3.44 ± 1.16 for medical vs. 4.45 ± 0.69 for nursing, p = 0.003). Students also emphasized the value of problem-based discussions (3.83 ± 1.05 for medical vs. 4.36 ± 0.81 for nursing, p = 0.10) and perceived anatomy as highly relevant to future practice (4.32 ± 0.92). Challenges included difficulty in applying digital anatomy to clinical scenarios, software crashes, and limited access. Faculty cited time constraints, insufficient institutional support, and the steep learning curve for integrating new tools. Many relied on self-directed learning, resulting in inconsistent implementation. Also, limited human resources hampered the efficiency of hands-on sessions. To optimize anatomy education, institutions should establish structured faculty training, improve technical infrastructure, and align curricula with innovative methods. A hybrid model combining digital tools with cadaveric dissection could offer the most comprehensive approach. Addressing these barriers can enhance learning outcomes and faculty engagement, especially in resource-limited settings. Future studies should explore long-term effects on student performance, clinical competence, and optimal integration strategies.
Characterization of Healthy Pancreas Morphology Throughout Childhood.
Dudley JA, Murdock KE, Qiu L … +2 more , Abu-El-Haija M, Trout AT
Clin Anat · 2026 Mar · PMID 40616220 · Publisher ↗
Pancreas shape features, derived from 3D segmentation of the pancreas, might be relevant to identifying subtle disease-related changes in the pancreas. This work utilized a retrospective sample of clinical contrast-enhan...
Pancreas shape features, derived from 3D segmentation of the pancreas, might be relevant to identifying subtle disease-related changes in the pancreas. This work utilized a retrospective sample of clinical contrast-enhanced CT examinations of 140 children < 18 years of age. Manual segmentations of the pancreas were used to extract radiomic shape features and perform statistical shape modeling using a partial least squares regression approach. Age, weight, height, body surface area, and body mass index each showed significant associations with volume, surface area, surface area to volume ratio, compactness, major axis length, minor axis length, least axis length, and area density. Elastic net regression models showed that demographic variables had strong predictive power (cross-validated r 0.71-0.89) for pancreas volume, surface area, surface area to volume ratio, major axis length, minor axis length, and least axis length. In the analysis of shape modes, only the first partial least squares regression component accounted for a statistically significant amount of the demographic variance among participants (24.8% variance explained, p < 0.001), with significant loadings for age (p < 0.001), weight (p = 0.001), and height (p < 0.001). Our results are the first to characterize pancreas shape features in children with healthy pancreatic function and set the stage for future studies to understand how disease impacts pancreas shape, beyond global changes in volume, and how changes in shape might be used to diagnose and monitor disease.
The Aorta-Gonad-Mesonephros (AGM): A Crossroads Between Hematopoiesis and Angiogenesis. A Historical Note.
Ribatti D
Clin Anat · 2026 Jan · PMID 40611670 · Publisher ↗
The aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) is a region of embryonic mesoderm that develops during embryonic development from the para-aortic splanchnopleura in chick, mouse, and human embryos. The AGM contains the dorsal aorta, g...
The aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) is a region of embryonic mesoderm that develops during embryonic development from the para-aortic splanchnopleura in chick, mouse, and human embryos. The AGM contains the dorsal aorta, genital ridges, and mesonephros, and lies between the notochord and the somatic mesoderm. The aim of this historical note was to underline the fundamental role of AGM in the development of the hematopoietic system at the crossroads between endothelial and hematopoietic cells.
The Myofascial Continuum: Anatomical Insights Into Noncardiac Chest Pain.
Raja G P, Punja R, Cruz AM … +1 more , Prabhu A
Clin Anat · 2026 Jan · PMID 40607636 · Full text
Angina, commonly known as chest pain, is the primary symptom of ischemic heart disease and can also present as pain in the neck, shoulder, jaw, arm, or back. Noncardiac chest pain (NCCP) is a common disorder with various...
Angina, commonly known as chest pain, is the primary symptom of ischemic heart disease and can also present as pain in the neck, shoulder, jaw, arm, or back. Noncardiac chest pain (NCCP) is a common disorder with various causes, marked by recurrent chest pain that mimics ischemic heart pain. While gastroesophageal reflux disease is recognized as the most common cause, the symptoms can also arise from musculoskeletal disorders of the chest wall and upper limbs. Although spinal dysfunction, Tietze syndrome, costochondritis, and slipping ribs have been associated with chest pain, the myofascial etiology of NCCP remains unclear and underdiagnosed. This review explores the structural myofascial continuum (MC) connecting the segments of the upper quadrant, including the neck, chest, and upper limbs. It also highlights the plausible role of the myofascial continuum in NCCP and its associated plethora of symptoms. Although studies have demonstrated myofascial expansions in which the deep fascia connects the various muscles of the upper quadrant, their role remains unclear. Painful symptoms concomitant with musculoskeletal chest pain arise from impairment of the myofascial continuum. Comprehending the intricate myofascial connections between the neck, chest, and upper limbs is crucial for clinicians seeking to improve the evaluation and treatment of NCCP.
Dissecting the Impact of Anatomy Lab Policies on Pregnant Medical Students.
Wozniak K, Fagan R, Krause M
Clin Anat · 2025 Sep · PMID 40605446 · Publisher ↗
There has been little research into the unique occupational hazards facing pregnant medical students, particularly surrounding their exposure to formaldehyde during cadaveric dissection. Formaldehyde is potentially terat...
There has been little research into the unique occupational hazards facing pregnant medical students, particularly surrounding their exposure to formaldehyde during cadaveric dissection. Formaldehyde is potentially teratogenic and mutagenic and has been associated with spontaneous abortion and birth defects. This project was undertaken to investigate the prevalence and content of policies in United States medical schools concerning pregnant students' participation in gross anatomy laboratories. The U.S. News and World Report's top 50 medical schools were systematically reviewed for policies pertaining to pregnant students' participation in gross anatomy laboratories during 2023. Email contact was made with each school to confirm the policy, or to inquire whether there was any non-publicly available policy or guidance instead. Among the 50 schools reviewed, 13 (26%) had written policies, six (12%) were publicly available, and seven (14%) had policies obtained via email, while seven other schools (14%) responded with unofficial policies or internal guidance used by their anatomy departments. Twenty-nine schools (58%) were categorized as having no policies; 16 of these did not respond to the email, and one declined to participate. One school was excluded. The content and scope of both official and unofficial policies varied widely. The lack of codified policies in most medical schools regarding safety considerations for pregnant students in gross anatomy laboratories indicated that more could be done to accommodate this group of students. Creating official, publicly available policies would promote a more inclusive environment for these trainees and signal to students that the institution is prepared to support them should they become pregnant during medical school.
"To Teach the Bald Facts of Anatomy Unenlightened by General Laws".
Tubbs RS
Clin Anat · 2025 Jul · PMID 40483580 · Publisher ↗
Abstract loading — click title to view on PubMed.
Quantification of Palmar and Digital Epidermal Thickness and Sweat Duct Density.
Jones E, Mughal HN, Moscalu R … +5 more , Columb M, Duff C, Dickinson M, Reid AJ, Murphy RNA
Clin Anat · 2025 Jun · PMID 40464477 · Publisher ↗
Palmar digital skin, with its high density of epidermal sweat glands and unique stratum corneum, derives its autonomic innervation from peripheral nerves. Understanding the changes to these structures could serve as obje...
Palmar digital skin, with its high density of epidermal sweat glands and unique stratum corneum, derives its autonomic innervation from peripheral nerves. Understanding the changes to these structures could serve as objective proxy markers following peripheral nerve injury and interventions to promote regeneration. There are limited data in humans for these measures, and normative reference ranges are yet to be defined. Light-based imaging techniques, such as optical coherence tomography (OCT), can detect quantifiable changes in these epidermal parameters. This study aimed to define the normal epidermal thickness and sweat duct density (SDD) of volar hand skin. A total of 53 healthy, non-injured participants, 21 males and 32 females, were enrolled. Two- and three-dimensional images of defined 1 × 1 mm areas of volar fingertip skin were obtained using OCT. The mean epidermal thickness and SDD were manually calculated. Results were compared across all digits and by age and gender. The 95% reference intervals for both parameters were also calculated. There was a significant (p < 0.0001) progressive reduction in epidermal thickness across the digits, from the thumb towards the little finger. Females had a significantly thinner (p = 0.011) epidermal layer in comparison to males. Sweat duct density was significantly lower (p < 0.030) in the thumb compared to the middle, ring, or little fingers. There was a general downward trend in the number of sweat glands per mm with age (p < 0.0001). The reference interval for epidermal thickness was 0.37-0.79 mm, while for SDD the interval was 30-86 ducts/mm. This study has outlined normative differences in SDD and epidermal thickness in palmar digital skin. Our results can be used as control measures for prospective studies looking into the regenerative process following peripheral nerve injuries or identifying potential trauma to digital nerves.
Guidelines Against Discrimination and Bias in Anatomical Research Papers (GDBARP): Recommendations From Anatomical Journal Editors.
Iwanaga J, Takeda S, Walocha JA … +12 more , Ribatti D, Del Sol M, Ravi KS, Moryś J, Paulsen F, Singh V, Apaydin N, Kim HJ, Adds P, Duparc F, Loukas M, Tubbs RS
Clin Anat · 2025 Jul · PMID 40384060 · Publisher ↗
Most discussions about discrimination and bias in anatomical research papers have been limited to terminology relating to race/ethnicity and gender/sex. However, as editors of anatomical journals, the authors of this art...
Most discussions about discrimination and bias in anatomical research papers have been limited to terminology relating to race/ethnicity and gender/sex. However, as editors of anatomical journals, the authors of this article have frequently observed broader instances of potential discrimination and bias within anatomical research. These often stem from differences among authors' backgrounds, traditions, cultures, religions, provenance/origins, and workplace affiliations. In view of the limited discourse on this topic, we seek in this article to establish a consensus among editors of anatomical journals and to propose new Guidelines Against Discrimination and Bias in Anatomical Research Papers (GDBARP). We have identified multiple factors that can contribute to discrimination and bias, underscoring the need for greater awareness and proactive measures. It is imperative in anatomical research to respect authors, reviewers, and editors regardless of their background, culture, traditions, sex, ethnicity, language, religion, or ethical perspectives.
Morphological Analysis of the Latissimus Dorsi Tendon Insertion: Implications for Optimizing Tendon Transfer Surgeries in Rotator Cuff Repair.
Kwon S, Choi CH, Kim H … +1 more , Hur MS
Clin Anat · 2026 Jul · PMID 40366331 · Full text
Latissimus dorsi (LD) tendon transfer is widely used to treat irreparable rotator cuff tears, particularly in cases with posterosuperior and anterosuperior tear patterns. We conducted a comprehensive anatomical analysis...
Latissimus dorsi (LD) tendon transfer is widely used to treat irreparable rotator cuff tears, particularly in cases with posterosuperior and anterosuperior tear patterns. We conducted a comprehensive anatomical analysis of the attachment of the LD tendon to the humerus, focusing on its morphological patterns and morphometric features, which are critical for optimizing the surgery. Dissection of 32 LD tendons in 16 Korean cadavers revealed three insertion patterns: fully combined (40.6%), partially combined (34.4%), and fully separated (25.0%). The mean width, length, and thickness of the tendons were 48.4, 56.2, and 6.2 mm, respectively. There were significant asymmetries in tendon dimensions. There were also tendinous slips connecting the LD tendon to the triceps tendon, adjacent brachial fascia, coracoid process, and anterior joint capsule of the shoulder in nine specimens, emphasizing the anatomical variability relevant to surgical planning. These findings provide insights for determining surgical approaches on the basis of patient anatomy, and whether to use LD transfer alone or combined LD and teres major transfers. Understanding the anatomical variations will help to make interventions more precise, which in turn should enhance the efficacy of tendon transfer procedures and improve functional outcomes for patients with complex shoulder pathologies.
Variations in Human Trigeminal and Facial Nerve Branches and Foramina Identified by Dissection and Microcomputed Tomography.
Grimes HL, Pizzuti V, Wright MA … +3 more , Colston KPJ, Santarius T, Jones S
Clin Anat · 2025 May · PMID 40366311 · Publisher ↗
The aim of this study was to identify branches of the trigeminal and facial nerves (FNs) relevant to surgical incisions and injections and the scalp block techniques in the frontotemporal region, and to determine their r...
The aim of this study was to identify branches of the trigeminal and facial nerves (FNs) relevant to surgical incisions and injections and the scalp block techniques in the frontotemporal region, and to determine their relationships with superficial vascular structures and bony landmarks. Half-heads from consenting embalmed donors (6 male, 2 female, mean age at death 78.4 years) were used in this study. Detailed dissection was carried out to identify the position of the auriculotemporal nerve (ATN) relative to the superior temporal artery (STA) and the FN in six subjects (5 male, 1 female). The results provide a minimum safe distance of 5 mm between the STA and the frontotemporal branches of the FN at the level of the low edge of the zygoma and 8 mm between the low edge of the zygoma and the FN trunk, providing a pre-auricular triangle of safety for incisions and injections. Variability between subjects was up to 60%. Microcomputed tomography (microCT) scans were taken from all eight subjects and the three-dimensional reconstructions were used to identify the supraorbital notch (SON), the zygomaticotemporal foramen (ZTF), and the zygomaticofacial foramen (ZFF). The volume and relative locations of these foramina were calculated for 5-8 subjects. The closest distance between ZTF and the frontozygomatic suture (FZS) ranged from 9 to 21 mm (26% variation); 3 subjects had a single ZTF while 5 subjects had two ZTF. The angle at the center of the orbit between ZFF and the FZS ranged from 156° to 166° (2.5% variation). These findings demonstrate that both traditional cadaveric dissection methods and contemporary microCT methods can be used to investigate the relative locations of nerves or their foramina in the human head. The findings provide anatomical considerations for fronto-temporal incisions and local anesthesia.
What Do We Know About Ligaments?
Iwanaga J, Kikuchi K, Hur MS … +5 more , Kawai H, Tabira Y, Reina MA, LaPrade RF, Watanabe K
Clin Anat · 2025 Jul · PMID 40358036 · Publisher ↗
Ligaments have been extensively studied in anatomy and are traditionally defined as structures that connect bones and contribute to joint stability. However, a universally accepted definition of "ligament" remains elusiv...
Ligaments have been extensively studied in anatomy and are traditionally defined as structures that connect bones and contribute to joint stability. However, a universally accepted definition of "ligament" remains elusive. Many structures classified as ligaments do not connect bones, such as the ligamentum arteriosum, raising questions about the criteria used for their designation. Moreover, distinguishing ligaments from tendons presents a significant challenge because of their shared histological characteristics and the lack of a clear, standardized definition of "ligament". Historically, ligaments have been named primarily on the basis of their gross anatomical appearance rather than well-defined structural or functional criteria. Ambiguities in nomenclature such as the interchangeable use of "patellar ligament" and "patellar tendon" further complicate classification. Additionally, dissection bias can lead to the artificial identification of ligaments because traditional dissection techniques can isolate tissue layers in a manner that creates the illusion of distinct ligament structures. Given these limitations, gross anatomical dissection alone is insufficient to confirm the presence of a ligament, necessitating histological validation based on a fundamental definition. Establishing a precise classification system that differentiates traditional bone-to-bone ligaments from other connective structures is imperative. Close collaboration between anatomists and surgeons is essential for refining anatomical definitions because inaccurate classifications can have direct implications for clinical practice, particularly in ligament reconstruction. A research-driven, standardized definition of ligaments can enhance anatomical education and improve surgical precision.
The Discovery of the Pericytes: A Historical Note.
Ribatti D
Clin Anat · 2025 Jul · PMID 40346904 · Publisher ↗
Pericytes are adventitial cells located within the basement membranes of capillaries and post-capillary venules. Because they have multiple cytoplasmic processes and distinctive cytoskeletal elements, and envelope endoth...
Pericytes are adventitial cells located within the basement membranes of capillaries and post-capillary venules. Because they have multiple cytoplasmic processes and distinctive cytoskeletal elements, and envelope endothelial cells, pericytes are considered cells that stabilize the vessel wall, controlling endothelial cell proliferation and thereby the growth of new capillaries. Several molecules are involved in controlling and modulating the interactions between pericytes and endothelial cells, such as platelet-derived growth factor beta (PDGFβ), transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ), and angiopoietins (Angs).
Effectiveness of Different Teaching Modalities in Human Gross Anatomy Education.
Mooney A, Thompson NE, Hoffmann S
Clin Anat · 2025 Jul · PMID 40342132 · Publisher ↗
With increasing cost and time constraints, anatomy education has shifted away from classic dissection in favor of more effective teaching modalities. Here we investigated different teaching modalities on test performance...
With increasing cost and time constraints, anatomy education has shifted away from classic dissection in favor of more effective teaching modalities. Here we investigated different teaching modalities on test performance and student satisfaction in the human gross anatomy laboratory at the New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine (NYITCOM). The anatomy laboratory for first-year osteopathic students at NYITCOM was divided into stations including radiology, case-based learning, prosection, and dissection. Content covered at those stations was tested via anatomy laboratory examinations, comprised of computer-based identification and multiple-choice questions. Our data encompassed 459 first-year medical students taking anatomy in 2022 at both NYITCOM campus sites (Arkansas and New York). We coded 355 exam questions by teaching modality used in the anatomy laboratory. Questions covered in multiple modalities were classified as 'mixed'. Performance among modalities was analyzed using a three-way ANOVA. Prosection-based questions (mean = 75.6) performed significantly worse than dissection (mean = 83.4, p < 0.01) and mixed-modality (mean = 80.7, p < 0.01). There was no significant difference in performance on material taught through dissection, radiology, case-based activity and mixed modalities. In addition, we investigated the effect of an instructor at the case-based activity station using repeated measures ANOVA. Our results indicate that case-based activity stations performed better without an instructor present (mean = 77.4 v. 72.7; p < 0.05). This study showed that teaching via prosection results in poorer performance than other teaching modalities and that dissection or hybrid models appear more effective in knowledge retention. Contrary to actual performance, students rated prosection as the most effective teaching modality. These results come at a critical time when COVID-19 has accelerated the shift away from dissection in favor of virtual methods.
Positional Relationship Between the Orbicularis Oculi and Zygomaticus Complex Muscles by Ultrasonography: New Anatomical Insights for Crow's Feet Injection.
Piao JZ, Lee JH, Hu KS … +1 more , Kim HJ
Clin Anat · 2025 May · PMID 40341629 · Publisher ↗
The orbicularis oculi muscle (OOc) is strongly associated with facial aging as its contraction causes the formation of crow's feet. Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injection is a representative treatment targeting muscle. Th...
The orbicularis oculi muscle (OOc) is strongly associated with facial aging as its contraction causes the formation of crow's feet. Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injection is a representative treatment targeting muscle. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the anatomical relationship between the OOc and the zygomaticus complex muscles, and to visualize the distribution of the facial nerve that innervates the OOc, thereby providing reference data for BoNT injections targeting that muscle. The positional relationships and overlapping ranges between the OOc, zygomaticus minor (Zmi), and zygomaticus major (ZMj), and their distances from the skin, were measured on four different perpendicular planes using ultrasonography. Specimens of the OOc were stained with modified Sihler's stain. The mean distances between the lateral canthus horizontal plane (LCHP) and the zygomaticus complex muscles superior margin were 20.0, 17.9, 22.8, and 20.8 mm in perpendicular planes LC (lateral canthus), OR (orbital rim), M (midpoint of the frontal process of zygomatic bone), and J (Jugale point), respectively. The mean distances between the OOc and the skin were 4.9, 4.8, 5.5, and 4.7 mm in those perpendicular planes. The mean distances between the zygomaticus complex muscles and the OOc were 3.0, 3.1, 4.5, and 4.1 mm. The authors propose new insights for crow's feet injection based on anatomical information obtained from ultrasonography and Sihler's staining, which should contribute to minimizing complications and improving the efficacy of BoNT administration.
Renal Arterial Anatomy: Implications for Normothermic Machine Perfusion in Renal Transplantation.
Miller LM, Douglas P, Glen J … +1 more , Aitken E
Clin Anat · 2026 Mar · PMID 40334121 · Full text
Normothermic machine perfusion (NMP) is a novel technology that has shown potential in viability assessment and reconditioning of donor organs. Normothermic machine perfusion is technically more challenging in kidneys wi...
Normothermic machine perfusion (NMP) is a novel technology that has shown potential in viability assessment and reconditioning of donor organs. Normothermic machine perfusion is technically more challenging in kidneys with multiple renal arteries (RAs). This study aimed to characterize the anatomical variation in RAs with a view to the development of optimal equipment for RA cannulation in NMP. Magnetic resonance angiograms obtained from all potential living donors at our centre between 2018 and 2022 were evaluated with PACS 3D with vessel analysis. Three independent reviewers measured RA characteristics (number, cross-sectional area, diameter, distance, angulation). A total of 618 kidneys were included for analysis. Kidneys were categorized into five groups based on the anatomical configuration of arteries. 75.4% had a single RA (group one). One quarter of kidneys were found to have multiple RAs, with inferior accessory arteries the commonest variation. Of the 139 kidneys with multiple RAs (24.6%): 5.3% had two equal sized RAs (group two), 5.5% had a superior accessory artery (group three), 11.7% an inferior accessory artery (group four), and 2.1% had three RAs (group five). Left RAs were of larger diameter, but right RAs were longer (p < 0.001). The number of arteries supplying the right kidney significantly predicted the number of arteries supplying the left kidney (β = 0.15). 23.7% of kidneys with two RAs and 30.8% with three RAs had distances between vessels > 28 mm (length of the existing clamp used for perfusion). 19.1% of main RAs had originated from the aorta at angles ≥ 135°. These findings highlight the insufficiencies with existing NMP equipment for cannulation of the RA. A larger clamp may facilitate perfusion of more kidneys with multiple vessels, whilst soft, flexible cannulae are likely to be needed to accommodate the wide range in angulation of RA origin demonstrated.
The Utility of Anatomy Assessment in Preclinical Undergraduate Medical Curricula: A Scoping Review.
Woon CK, Wong KH, Alias A … +2 more , Abas R, Hadie SNH
Clin Anat · 2025 Jul · PMID 40325982 · Publisher ↗
Anatomy assessments are crucial for developing critical thinking and analytical skills in preclinical undergraduate medical curricula. However, because there is little published empirical evidence, the value of anatomy a...
Anatomy assessments are crucial for developing critical thinking and analytical skills in preclinical undergraduate medical curricula. However, because there is little published empirical evidence, the value of anatomy assessment remains largely unexplored. The aim of this scoping review, conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) scoping review guidelines, was to explore the utility elements adopted in anatomy assessment within preclinical undergraduate medical curricula. A rigorous three-step search approach across five electronic databases (Scopus, WoS, PubMED, Wiley Online, and EBSCOHost) generated an initial pool of 721 records, which were assessed for duplication and eligibility, leading to the inclusion of 43 records from which data were extracted. The extracted data covered various utility elements of anatomy assessment including validity, reliability, practicality, feasibility, cost-effectiveness, and educational impact, along with various assessment contexts such as assessed competencies, assessment function, and assessment tools. The findings indicate a strong emphasis on assessing cognitive competencies in anatomy education; psychomotor and affective competencies received less attention. Identified gaps include limited exploration of validity evidence, assessment methods, cost-effectiveness, and educational impact of assessment. Moreover, the study highlights challenges in implementing formative assessments alongside summative assessments, constraints in assessing psychomotor skills, and the subjective nature of assessing affective competencies. By addressing these gaps and leveraging innovative assessment tools and practices, educators can enhance the quality of anatomy education and prepare students better for their future careers in medicine.
Musculoskeletal Anatomy Education: A Survey of North American Medical Programs.
Orchard T, Peeler J
Clin Anat · 2025 Jul · PMID 40296327 · Full text
Postgraduate data reveal that most physicians lack adequate anatomical knowledge and clinical confidence when practicing musculoskeletal (MSK) medicine. Curricular data from nationally accredited medical programs clearly...
Postgraduate data reveal that most physicians lack adequate anatomical knowledge and clinical confidence when practicing musculoskeletal (MSK) medicine. Curricular data from nationally accredited medical programs clearly indicate that the total time dedicated to gross anatomy instruction has decreased over recent decades. However, little information is available regarding the MSK anatomy learning environment across accredited medical programs in North America. The purpose of this study was to document the current state of preclinical MSK anatomy education across North American medical programs. A survey was sent to all 14 English-speaking Canadian and 135 of the 158 American accredited medical programs. The survey had a 100% response rate from Canadian programs and 43% from American programs. The results indicated that the mean time spent learning preclinical MSK anatomy varied widely across both Canadian (29.8 h ± 13.7, range 12-60, median 29, mode 12) and American (50.8 h ± 46.2, range 2-280, median 35, mode 30) programs, most of them integrating anatomy learning into the clinical learning environment (56%). All but one program reported using cadaveric-based instruction (99%) and the majority taught radiological correlates (94%) and surface anatomy (71%) within their curriculum. Diverse modes of instruction were used by all programs, but didactic lectures remained the most frequent form (89%). While a variety of learning resources were used to support student learning, the type of resource varied significantly, Canadian programs most commonly providing a "curriculum-specific" notes package (86%) and American programs most commonly requiring an anatomy atlas (84%). Summative and formative methods of evaluation were used by most programs (96%), final written examinations (79%) and ongoing in-course evaluation (81%) being most popular. The results serve to document the current state of preclinical MSK anatomy education within nationally accredited allopathic medical programs and to illustrate the wide variability of the learning environment. Future research should be directed at establishing consistent standards for preclinical MSK anatomy education and investigating the long-term effects on knowledge retention and clinical confidence.
Pulmonalis or Pulmonaris? It's Elementarius, My Dear Watson.
Neumann PE, Houle M, Russell S … +1 more , Stiles L
Clin Anat · 2026 Jul · PMID 40277250 · Full text
The adjectival suffix -alis and its allomorph -aris are very common in the anatomical nomenclature; however, rules governing differential usage, such as -aris substituting for -alis following an -l-, leave many exception...
The adjectival suffix -alis and its allomorph -aris are very common in the anatomical nomenclature; however, rules governing differential usage, such as -aris substituting for -alis following an -l-, leave many exceptions. Here, we report an empirical study of 985 adjectives with -alis and -aris suffixes used in Terminologia Anatomica (2nd ed.) and Terminologia Histologica to develop phonological rules that would have fewer exceptions. As a general rule, the default is -alis, but -aris after -l-, except with -r- between. This tripartite rule reduces the exceptions to < 10%, but this can be reduced to < 6% by limiting the distance over which the dissimilation effect of an -l- in the base is expected to operate. After consideration of precedents in classical, late, and medieval Latin, and derivatives in modern Romance and Germanic languages, we recommend the use of pulmonarius, elementarius, unitarius, pulparis, and lumbaris, and compound adjectives created from these words, in place of related adjectival forms that were previously used in anatomical Latin.
The Roles of Artificial Intelligence in Teaching Anatomy: A Systematic Review.
Joseph TS, Gowrie S, Montalbano MJ … +6 more , Bandelow S, Clunes M, Dumont AS, Iwanaga J, Tubbs RS, Loukas M
Clin Anat · 2025 Jul · PMID 40269576 · Full text
Anatomy education is a cornerstone of medical training and relies on cadaveric dissection and 2D illustrations. Technological advancements and integrated curricula have reduced the focus on detailed anatomy and challenge...
Anatomy education is a cornerstone of medical training and relies on cadaveric dissection and 2D illustrations. Technological advancements and integrated curricula have reduced the focus on detailed anatomy and challenged educators to engage Generation Z learners with interactive, tech-driven methods. Advanced imaging and artificial intelligence (AI) offer a solution, providing virtual dissection simulations and personalized learning tools that mimic 3D anatomy and adapt to individual student needs. Machine learning, a subset of AI, enhances this process by enabling predictive analytics, adaptive feedback, and tailored learning pathways based on performance data, significantly improving anatomical comprehension. Despite its benefits, AI integration raises concerns about over-reliance on technology, biases, and diminished human interaction in training. This review examines AI's transformative potential in anatomy education while emphasizing the need for balanced implementation and ethical oversight. A systematic review following PRISMA guidelines was conducted, utilizing PubMed and backward citation searches. The search yielded 56 studies, with 47 additional articles from citations, resulting in 61 included studies. These explored AI applications such as virtual dissection simulations, machine learning algorithms for adaptive feedback, and gamified learning experiences, which were shown to enhance engagement, personalize learning, and improve anatomical understanding. Concerns about over-reliance on AI and the loss of human interaction were also raised. AI has the potential to enhance anatomy education, but careful consideration of ethical and practical implications is essential. A balanced approach combining traditional methods with AI and robust oversight is crucial for effective integration.
Topographical Anatomy of the Superficial Peroneal Nerve: A Cadaveric Study on Anatomical Patterns and Clinical Implications.
Lee KL, Kim SB, Yoon K … +1 more , Kim HJ
Clin Anat · 2026 Jan · PMID 40251838 · Full text
The notable anatomical variability of the superficial fibular nerve (SFN) affects clinical and surgical procedures that involve it. The aim of this study was to analyze the course and branching patterns of the SFNs relat...
The notable anatomical variability of the superficial fibular nerve (SFN) affects clinical and surgical procedures that involve it. The aim of this study was to analyze the course and branching patterns of the SFNs relative to bony landmarks to provide foundational data for surgical precision and thereby minimize iatrogenic injuries. Thirty-four embalmed Korean cadavers were dissected. The points at which the SFN (1) pierced through the crural fascia and (2) bifurcated into the medial and intermediate dorsal cutaneous nerves were measured from the lateral malleolus and fibula. The SFN piercing point was located at an average of 89.6 ± 30.8 mm (range: 26.5-153.8 mm) above the lateral malleolus and 14.7 ± 3.6 mm (range: 7.1-21.5 mm) horizontally from the fibula. In 32 specimens, the SFN pierced the fascia and then bifurcated, but in the other two cases it bifurcated before piercing the fascia. The bifurcation point was identified at an average height of 40.8 ± 20.1 mm and a horizontal distance of 25.1 ± 7.5 mm from the fibula. There was significant anatomical variability in the trajectory and branching patterns of the SFN. These findings underscore the importance of precise anatomical knowledge for minimizing complications during foot and ankle surgeries. This study provides a foundation for preoperative planning and clinical application around the SFN.
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