J Strength Cond Res [JOURNAL]
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200 papers
Specific Effects of Aqua and Land Plyometric Training on Jump Performance Across Diverse Stretch-Shortening Cycle Types.
Cavar M, Marsic T, Sentija D … +2 more , Culjak Z, Morales JG
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42172307 · Publisher ↗
Cavar, M, Marsic, T, Sentija, D, Culjak, Z, and Morales, JG. Specific effects of aqua and land plyometric training on jump performance across diverse stretch-shortening cycle types. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 20...
Cavar, M, Marsic, T, Sentija, D, Culjak, Z, and Morales, JG. Specific effects of aqua and land plyometric training on jump performance across diverse stretch-shortening cycle types. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-The effects of aqua plyometric (AQP) versus land plyometric (LP) training on jumping performance have been inconsistently reported and primarily examined using the countermovement jump (CMJ). This study compared AQP and LP training across 4 jump tests with diverse stretch-shortening cycles (SSCs). Thirty-three trained adult men were divided into AQP, LP, and control (CON) groups. To enhance training outcomes over a 6-week, 12-session intervention and reflect common practice, jump training was combined with short sprints performed in group-specific water or land environments. A significant group × time interaction was observed for the CMJ (p < 0.05). Both AQP and LP significantly and similarly improved CMJ performance, whereas CON did not. Program-specific effects were evident, as LP significantly outperformed AQP and CON in the Four Jump Test (4JT; p < 0.05) based on the reactive strength index, whereas AQP showed significantly greater improvement in the standing broad jump (SBJ; p < 0.01). No between-group differences were observed for the squat jump (SQJ). These findings suggest that AQP is at least as effective as LP for jump tasks with slow or absent SSCs, such as the CMJ, SBJ, and SQJ, which rely primarily on voluntary force production, likely due to the beneficial training effects of increased resistance in water. By contrast, for jumps involving fast SSCs and reliance on elastic energy utilization, such as the 4JT, AQP is not an effective alternative to LP because key fast-SSC characteristics, such as impact forces and short contact times, might be compromised in water.
Strength and Speed Training Practices for Olympic Endurance Sports: Insights From World-Class Coaches.
Haugen T, Sandbakk Ø, Bucher Sandbakk S … +1 more , Tønnessen E
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42172297 · Publisher ↗
Haugen, T, Sandbakk, Ø, Bucher Sandbakk, S, and Tønnessen, E. Strength and speed training practices for Olympic endurance sports: Insights from world-class coaches. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-This study aim...
Haugen, T, Sandbakk, Ø, Bucher Sandbakk, S, and Tønnessen, E. Strength and speed training practices for Olympic endurance sports: Insights from world-class coaches. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-This study aimed to identify common features and sport-specific variations in strength and speed training practices in Olympic endurance sports as described by world-class Norwegian coaches. A multiple case study design was used, and 12 successful male Norwegian coaches served as key informants. Together, they were responsible for athletes winning ∼400 international medals, representing long-distance running, biathlon, rowing, cross-country skiing, speed skating, road cycling, swimming, and triathlon. Data collection was based on a pragmatic 4-step procedure involving questionnaires, training logs, in-depth and semistructured interviews, followed by negotiation among researchers and coaches to assure our interpretations. The present coaches implemented strength and speed training to reduce injury risk, enhance work economy, finish/acceleration capacity, and skeletal health. The total volume of such training ranged from 20 to 200 hours·year-1, depending on sport and contextual factors. The highest volumes and resistance loads were reached during preparation phases, and the strength and speed training were implemented at varying stages of the weekly cycle. Strength sessions typically consisted of 4-8 exercises, 2-4 sets per exercise, 5-10 repetitions per set, and up to 10 repetitions in reserve. The speed training was completed in sport-specific modality with an intensity >90% of maximal velocity. The coaches emphasized strength and speed training as supportive yet secondary to endurance development, often delegating its implementation to the athletes themselves or to specialized staff. The present insights offer valuable contributions to strength and speed training practices in endurance sports and lay the groundwork for future research exploring the effectiveness of these strategies.
Force Orientation on Changes of Direction: A Kinetic Comparison of the Penultimate, Final, and Acceleration Steps During a Modified 505 Test.
Barrera-Domínguez FJ, Jones PA, Almagro BJ … +1 more , Molina-López J
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42172293 · Publisher ↗
Barrera-Domínguez, FJ, Paul A. Jones, Almagro, BJ, and Molina-López, J. Force orientation on changes of direction: A kinetic comparison of the penultimate, final, and acceleration steps during a modified 505 test. J Stre...
Barrera-Domínguez, FJ, Paul A. Jones, Almagro, BJ, and Molina-López, J. Force orientation on changes of direction: A kinetic comparison of the penultimate, final, and acceleration steps during a modified 505 test. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-The knowledge of the mechanical variables in the different phases of change of direction (COD) actions would provide useful data for improving the performance of multidirectional movements. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between different mechanical characteristics and ground reaction force (GRF) orientations of the COD during penultimate (PFC), final (FFC), and first accelerating foot contact (AFC) with both performance and efficiency of COD. Twenty-five multidirectional male athletes (age, 23.5 ± 3.27 years; body height, 178 ± 9.76 cm; body mass, 79.4 ± 14.7 kg) performed 6 modified-505 trials, and GRFs were collected across the PFC, FFC, and AFC during the COD. Players were categorized as "Low-Group" (n = 13) and "High-Group" (n = 12) based on performance and efficiency in COD. Faster and more efficient performers demonstrated significantly lower vertical impact forces (VIF) in PFC (R2 ≥ 0.16; p ≤ 0.04), shorter ground contact times (GCT) in FFC (R2 ≥ 0.15; p ≤ 0.04), and greater horizontal propulsive force (HPF) during AFC (R2 ≥ 0.45; p < 0.01) than slower athletes. These findings suggest that different mechanical properties are required to produce faster and more efficient multidirectional speed performance. Training focused on developing the athletes' COD technique and stretching shorten cycle function to minimize VIF, shorten GCT, and increase HPF may be advantageous for turning performance.
Muscle Cramping in Ultra-Trail: Dehydration and Electrolyte Depletion versus Muscle Damage.
Martinez-Navarro I, Vicente-Mampel J, López-Grueso R … +4 more , Collado-Boira E, Recacha-Ponce P, Gómez-Seré T, Hernando C
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42172290 · Publisher ↗
Martinez-Navarro, I, Vicente-Mampel, J, López-Grueso, R, Collado-Boira, E, Recacha-Ponce, P, Gómez-Seré, T, and Hernando, C. Muscle cramping in ultra-trail: Dehydration and electrolyte depletion versus muscle damage. J S...
Martinez-Navarro, I, Vicente-Mampel, J, López-Grueso, R, Collado-Boira, E, Recacha-Ponce, P, Gómez-Seré, T, and Hernando, C. Muscle cramping in ultra-trail: Dehydration and electrolyte depletion versus muscle damage. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-Our aim was to compare dehydration variables, electrolyte and muscle damage serum markers, race pacing, and training background between runners who suffered exercise-associated muscle cramps (EAMC) and those who not in an ultra-trail race. Fifty-eight finishers (37 men and 21 women) from 2 editions of the same race (Penyagolosa Trails CSP) were analyzed. Blood and urine samples were collected, and body mass (BM) was measured before and after the race. Exercise-associated muscle cramps were diagnosed immediately after the race. Nine subjects developed EAMC (16%). Although it was not significantly different, the incidence in men was 4 times greater than in women (males: 22%, females: 5%). Body mass change, postrace urine specific gravity, and serum sodium levels did not differ between crampers and noncrampers. Conversely, postrace potassium was higher among crampers (5.04 ± 0.39 mmol·L-1 vs. 4.66 ± 0.48 mmol·L-1; p = 0.029; d = 0.83). At 24 h and 48 h postrace, creatine kinase (5,166 ± 3067 U·L-1 vs. 1940 ± 1523 U·L-1, p = 0.002, d = 1.80; 3,194 ± 2340 U·L-1 vs. 894 ± 775 U·L-1, p = 0.001, d = 2.05) and lactate dehydrogenase (565 ± 118 U·L-1 vs. 420 ± 185 U·L-1, p = 0.030, d = 0.83; 582 ± 140 U·L-1 vs. 401 ± 179 U·L-1, p = 0.006, d = 1.06) were greater among crampers. Pacing indices were not different between crampers and noncrampers. The percentage of runners who underwent regular lower-limb strength training was different (crampers: 55.6%, noncrampers: 87.5%; p = 0.021). Therefore, runners who suffered EAMC did not exhibit a greater degree of postrace dehydration and sodium depletion but displayed higher concentrations of muscle damage biomarkers from 24 to 48 h after the race.
Acute and Delayed Recovery Effects of Percussive and Ice Therapies on Shoulder Strength and Sensorimotor Function After Baseball Pitching.
Huang TH, Liu C, Fuchs PX … +1 more , Shiang TY
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42172289 · Publisher ↗
Huang, T-H, Liu, C, Fuchs, PX, and Shiang, T-Y. Acute and delayed recovery effects of percussive and ice therapies on shoulder strength and sensorimotor function after baseball pitching. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-00...
Huang, T-H, Liu, C, Fuchs, PX, and Shiang, T-Y. Acute and delayed recovery effects of percussive and ice therapies on shoulder strength and sensorimotor function after baseball pitching. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-This study compared the recovery effects of percussive massage and icing on shoulder strength and sensorimotor function after pitching-induced fatigue. Sixteen collegiate baseball pitchers participated in a within-subject design, sequentially completing 2 recovery treatments: 10-minute percussive massage and 15-minute icing (15°C) applied to the dominant shoulder after a simulated five-inning game (75 pitches). Perceived soreness was documented in addition to internal and external shoulder rotation strength and joint position sense at Prepitching, Postpitching, Post-treatment, and 48 hours Post-treatment (Post48-treatment). Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed treatment-time interactions on external shoulder torque at 120°/s and 300°·s-1 (p = 0.02 and 0.03; ηp2 = 0.23 and 0.20), joint position sense (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.41), and perceived soreness (p = 0.01, ηp2 = 0.25). Icing increased peak torque at 120 and 300°·s-1 at Post48-treatment (43.8 ± 11.4, 41.7 ± 10.7 N·m) compared with Post-treatment (36.1 ± 8.9, 35.3 ± 6.8 N·m) and Postpitching (34.1 ± 7.4, 33.3 ± 6.8 N·m) and reduced soreness at Post-treatment (3.6 ± 1.4) and Post48-treatment (4.5 ± 1.2) compared with Postpitching (5.3 ± 1.3)-unlike percussive massage. Both treatments improved joint position sense immediately, with smaller errors favoring icing (4.0 ± 2.8°) over percussive massage (7.4 ± 2.6°) at Post48-treatment. These findings suggested superior benefits of icing for restoring shoulder strength and proprioception, likely due to its ability to reduce inflammation and facilitate neuromuscular recovery. While percussive massage immediately improved sensorimotor performance, it appeared less effective for prolonged recovery than icing. Strength and conditioning professionals may prioritize icing after pitching to manage muscle fatigue and soreness.
Effect of Concurrent Power and Sprint Training on Physical Fitness in Well-Trained Youth Soccer Players: A Pilot Study.
Kyriacou-Rossi A, Ieronymides D, Hadjipantelis A … +5 more , Stampoulis T, Hadjicharalambous M, Avloniti A, Chatzinikolaou A, Zaras N
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42172288 · Publisher ↗
Kyriacou-Rossi, A, Ieronymides, D, Hadjipantelis, A, Stampoulis, T, Hadjicharalambous, M, Avloniti, A, Chatzinikolaou, A, and Zaras, N. Effect of concurrent power and sprint training on physical fitness in well-trained y...
Kyriacou-Rossi, A, Ieronymides, D, Hadjipantelis, A, Stampoulis, T, Hadjicharalambous, M, Avloniti, A, Chatzinikolaou, A, and Zaras, N. Effect of concurrent power and sprint training on physical fitness in well-trained youth soccer players: A pilot study. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of 5-week concurrent power-sprint training on power, repeated sprint ability (RSA), and aerobic capacity in well-trained youth soccer players. Sixteen male players (15.9 ± 0.5 years; height: 173.8 ± 5.0 m; mass: 65.3 ± 8.2 kg) participated in the study. After baseline evaluation, players were matched and divided into the concurrent (Conc) and the compound (Comp) groups. Players in the Conc group performed power-sprint training in the same training session, while the Comp group performed power and sprint training the following day. At the beginning and end of the 5-week training program, measurements included body composition, flexibility, countermovement (CMJ) and drop jumps (DJ), isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), 5-step long-jump, 0-30 m linear sprint, t test agility, RSA, and 30-15 intermittent fitness test (IFT). No changes were found for body composition and flexibility, although both groups improved CMJ height (Conc: 6.4%, p < 0.000; Comp: 5.6%, p < 0.001) and DJ reactive strength index (Conc: 38.2-42.5%, p < 0.000; Comp: 27.5-44.7%, p = 0.001), but only Conc increased IMTP (8.6%, p = 0.014). Five-step long-jump increased for both groups (Conc: 2.8 ± 2.6%, p = 0.027; Comp: 3.3 ± 3.6%, p = 0.012) but no chances were observed for 0-30 m linear sprint and agility. Repeated sprint ability increased in both groups, but Conc induced greater increases than Comp (p < 0.001). Significant increases were found for 30-15 IFT V̇o2max (Conc: 4.8%; Comp: 4.0%) for both groups. In conclusion, concurrent power-sprint training improves strength, power, and aerobic fitness in youth soccer players. Implementing both modalities within the same training session yields superior gains particularly in RSA, a key factor in soccer performance.
Blood Flow at Different Occlusion Pressures Using Multichambered Blood Flow Restriction Cuffs in the Arm and Leg.
Vehrs PR, Richards S, Nielsen JR … +6 more , Gardner SD, DeSpain N, Watkin JH, Witney T, Snow GL, Hager RL
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 Jul · PMID 42172275 · Publisher ↗
Vehrs, PR, Richards, S, Nielsen, JR, Gardner, SD, DeSpain, N, Watkin, JH, Witney, T, Snow, GL, and Hager, RL. Blood flow at different occlusion pressures using multichambered blood flow restriction cuffs in the arm and l...
Vehrs, PR, Richards, S, Nielsen, JR, Gardner, SD, DeSpain, N, Watkin, JH, Witney, T, Snow, GL, and Hager, RL. Blood flow at different occlusion pressures using multichambered blood flow restriction cuffs in the arm and leg. J Strength Cond Res 40(7): 747-756, 2026-The blood flow responses to increasing cuff pressure when using multichambered blood flow restriction (BFR) cuffs are not well understood. On 2 nonconsecutive days, ultrasound was used to measure unoccluded blood flow and blood flow at 8 cuff pressures in the arm (150-500 mm Hg) and 6 cuff pressures in the leg (250-500 mm Hg) using B Strong multichambered BFR cuffs in 20 healthy young adults (10 men, 10 women). Despite differences in limb circumferences, a cuff pressure of 500 mm Hg was unable to occlude blood flow in both limbs in men and women. Across the range of cuff pressures, there were significant sex differences ( p < 0.0001) in absolute (ml·min -1 ) and relative (% unoccluded) blood flow in the arm and absolute blood flow in the leg. Inflation of B Strong cuffs was unable to significantly reduce unoccluded absolute blood flow (ml·min -1 ) in the arm at all cuff pressures ( p = 0.2148-0.99). Relative blood flow in the arm was significantly reduced at all cuff pressures ( p < 0.0001) and a plateau ( p = 0.3771-0.99) occurred at cuff pressures of 200 mm Hg and above in men and 250 mm Hg and above in women. In the leg, only cuff pressures of 400 mm Hg and above ( p < 0.045) for men and 450 mm Hg and above ( p < 0.0001) in women significantly reduced absolute blood flow below unoccluded values. There was a plateau in relative blood flow between cuff pressures of 250-450 mm Hg in men and women ( p = 0.1041-0.99). Because of the wide variability in blood flow responses to increasing cuff pressures, people may have diverse experiences and outcomes with BFR training. This presents new challenges to prescribing exercise with BFR. The practical limitations of using multichambered BFR cuffs require further investigation.
The Effects of the Repetitive Use of a Position-Specific Loading Pattern on Lower Limb Asymmetry in NFL Offensive Tackles.
Latham KB
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 Jul · PMID 42172236 · Publisher ↗
Latham, KB. The effects of the repetitive use of a position-specific loading pattern on lower limb asymmetry in NFL offensive tackles. J Strength Cond Res 40(7): 757-768, 2026-American football is a fast-paced, high-impa...
Latham, KB. The effects of the repetitive use of a position-specific loading pattern on lower limb asymmetry in NFL offensive tackles. J Strength Cond Res 40(7): 757-768, 2026-American football is a fast-paced, high-impact, collision sport associated with a high frequency of injuries that occur through contact, noncontact, acute impact, or repeated stresses. The purpose of this short-term longitudinal study was to examine developments of musculoskeletal asymmetries through specific loading patterns used by offensive tackles in the National Football League (NFL). Using both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, strength asymmetry changes in 5 NFL offensive tackles were analyzed pre- and post-training camp, focusing on 3 key isometric strength tests: (a) isometric midthigh pull test, (b) isometric staggered stance pull test (IMSSP), and (c) force frame tests for isometric abduction and adduction strength. A countermovement jump (CMJ) was used to assess dynamic strength. Results revealed statistically significant changes in isometric strength and asymmetry over the course of training camp, with IMSSP ( p < 0.05) and CMJ ( p < 0.05). Notably, post-leg dominance was observed in several athletes in isometric strength. Asymmetry percentages were most noticeable in CMJ tests, with substantial increases in post-training camp asymmetries for several athletes. These findings suggest that repetitive use of a staggered stance position during an NFL training camp can lead to musculoskeletal imbalances in strength between limbs. The results highlight the importance of monitoring isometric strength and asymmetry as part of a tailored strength and conditioning program to mitigate injury risks. Future research should be focused on monitoring strength asymmetry through metrics such as eccentric hamstring strength and for longer. Future training should include alternating positions and incorporating exercises to balance strength across limbs.
Reaction Time and Movement Time in Agility Performance: Tools to Identify Specific Goals.
Silva H, Morral-Yepes M, Abade E
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 Jun · PMID 42171592 · Publisher ↗
Silva, H, Morral-Yepes, M, and Abade, E. Reaction time and movement time within the agility time: tools to identify specific goals. J Strength Cond Res 40(6): 709-722, 2026-Agility is a critical component in team sports,...
Silva, H, Morral-Yepes, M, and Abade, E. Reaction time and movement time within the agility time: tools to identify specific goals. J Strength Cond Res 40(6): 709-722, 2026-Agility is a critical component in team sports, encompassing rapid whole-body movements in response to stimuli and can be conceptualized as comprising 2 distinct segments: reaction time, which is the interval between the presentation of a stimulus and the initiation of movement in response to the stimulus; and movement time, which refers to the period between the start and end of the movement corresponding to the reaction. This narrative review presents a conceptual framework on the intricate relationship between these phases, which together shape the expression of agility in athletes. A structured literature search using Boolean operators was conducted across multiple databases, supplemented by backward citation tracking, to identify relevant studies on reaction time and movement time within agility in sports contexts. The review underscores the complexity of reaction time, influenced by the type of stimulus and the athlete's anticipatory skills, and the importance of movement time, affected by multiple factors including rate of force development, neuromuscular coordination, movement amplitude, and task-specific biomechanical demands. Assessment methods for reaction and movement times vary, ranging from general to sport-specific tests. Training interventions targeting these components show promise, with specific protocols improving reaction and movement times, although more research is needed to optimize these strategies, especially regarding movement time. By segmenting agility into reaction and movement times, practitioners can better identify and address athletes' specific needs, leading to more effective training programs. Through clear definitions and a conceptual framework, this review advances understanding of agility and informs practical approaches to training and assessment.
Associations Between Anthropometrics, Physical Determinants, and Batting Exit Speed in Elite Female Baseball Athletes.
Tremblay M, Prunault C, Abboud J … +1 more , Descarreaux M
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42171511 · Publisher ↗
Tremblay, M, Prunault, C, Abboud, J, and Descarreaux, M. Associations between anthropometrics, physical determinants, and batting exit speed in elite female baseball athletes. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-Thi...
Tremblay, M, Prunault, C, Abboud, J, and Descarreaux, M. Associations between anthropometrics, physical determinants, and batting exit speed in elite female baseball athletes. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-This study examined the associations between anthropometric and physical determinants with ball exit speed, in elite female baseball athletes. Thirty-seven female athletes (17.2 ± 1.8 years) from the Académie de Baseball du Canada were evaluated during the 2024-2025 offseason. Assessments included height, body mass, upper-body power (seated medicine ball throw), lower-body strength (isometric mid-thigh pull), countermovement jump (CMJ) height, 30-m sprint, and batting ball exit speed using Trackman radar. Correlation and multiple regression analyses were performed to identify predictors of ball exit speed in female batters. All anthropometric and physical performance variables were significantly associated with ball exit speed (ranging from r = -0.55 to 0.65). The multiple regression model including age, body mass, and CMJ height explained 76.8% of the variance in ball exit speed (adjusted R2 = 0.768; p < 0.001). To conclude, age, body mass, and lower-body power are strong predictors of batting performance in elite female baseball athletes in development. These findings highlight the importance of physical capacity and power development in optimizing batting outcomes and inform talent identification and training strategies in women's baseball.
Effects of Different Training-Intensity Distribution Models on Maximal Oxygen Uptake and Time-Trial Performance in Endurance Athletes: A Bayesian Network Meta-Analysis.
Li H, Yang Q, Wang B
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 Jul · PMID 42171506 · Publisher ↗
Li, H, Yang, Q, and Wang, B. Effects of different training-intensity distribution models on maximal oxygen uptake and time-trial performance in endurance athletes: A Bayesian network meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 40...
Li, H, Yang, Q, and Wang, B. Effects of different training-intensity distribution models on maximal oxygen uptake and time-trial performance in endurance athletes: A Bayesian network meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 40(7): e755-e764, 2026-Training intensity distribution (TID) describes how an athlete's total training time is allocated across low-, moderate-, and high-intensity zones. Training intensity distribution models are central to endurance training, but their relative effectiveness across key performance outcomes remains unclear. We conducted a Bayesian network meta-analysis to compare the effects of common TID models on maximal oxygen uptake (V̇ o2 max) and time-trial (TT) performance. Randomized controlled trials were retrieved from PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, the Cochrane Library, and Scopus, with risk of bias assessed using the Cochrane tool. Compared with polarized training, no other TID model showed a definite advantage for improving V̇ o2 max or TT performance, because all 95% credible intervals crossed zero. However, Bayesian posterior ranking indicated that lactate-threshold training (THR) was most likely to be the optimal model for V̇ o2 max (rank-1 probability = 65.4%, SUCRA = 84.8%), whereas high-intensity interval training (HIT) was most likely to optimize TT performance (rank-1 probability = 53.9%, SUCRA = 81.5%). Age, training status, intensity-quantification method, intervention duration, and sex were identified as potential moderators. Cluster analysis showed both shared and sport-specific TID patterns. Overall, coaches should tailor TID strategies to athlete characteristics and sport demands, with THR and HIT emerging as the most promising options for targeting V̇ o2 max and TT performance, respectively.
Bilateral Deficit in Exercise and Sport: A Narrative Review.
Uysal AA, Bereket Yücel S, Stone MH … +1 more , Carroll K
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 Jul · PMID 42171503 · Publisher ↗
Uysal, AA, Bereket Yücel, S, Stone, MH, and Carroll, K. Bilateral deficit in exercise and sport: A narrative review. J Strength Cond Res 40(7): 843-873, 2026-The primary purpose of this review was to conduct a comprehens...
Uysal, AA, Bereket Yücel, S, Stone, MH, and Carroll, K. Bilateral deficit in exercise and sport: A narrative review. J Strength Cond Res 40(7): 843-873, 2026-The primary purpose of this review was to conduct a comprehensive, up-to-date discussion on bilateral deficit (BLD) and to explore the underlying mechanisms of BLD in various conditions, such as during isometric and dynamic exercises. The secondary aim of the investigators was to examine the relationship between BLD and athletic performance. Although the physiological mechanisms of BLD are not fully understood, interhemispheric inhibition has been considered to be the primary neurological cause. In addition, biomechanical factors associated with BLD include postural differences, changes in movement patterns, variations in the contribution of synergist muscles, and differences in force output due to different shortening velocities between unilateral and bilateral actions. Bilateral deficit is more commonly detected in dynamic than in isometric contractions, with 50 of 63 dynamic contraction studies reporting BLD compared with 45 of 80 in isometric studies. In addition to the studies reporting the presence of BLD, 6 dynamic and 14 isometric contraction studies reported both BLD and no BLD within the same study, depending on the movement angle, limb side, and different subject categories. Eleven studies were investigations of the effect of unilateral or bilateral training on BLD; 10 of these reported statistically significant effects of training specificity. In other words, bilateral training reduced BLD, and unilateral training increased BLD. Nevertheless, there have been contradictory results in the literature on the relationship between BLD and athletic performance. Future studies may equalize external loads in each limb and increase stability of the multijoint exercises to assess the relationship between BLD and athletic performance.
Motor Variability as a Predictor of Strength Adaptation: The Role of Complexity in Resistance Training.
López-Fernández M, García-Aguilar F, Caballero C … +2 more , Moreno FJ, Sabido R
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42171484 · Publisher ↗
López-Fernández, M, García-Aguilar, F, Caballero, C, Moreno, FJ, and Sabido, R. Motor variability as a predictor of strength adaptation: the role of complexity in resistance training. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000,...
López-Fernández, M, García-Aguilar, F, Caballero, C, Moreno, FJ, and Sabido, R. Motor variability as a predictor of strength adaptation: the role of complexity in resistance training. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-This study investigated the relationship between initial motor variability, measured using Fuzzy Entropy (FuzzyEn), and adaptability to resistance training, hypothesizing that individuals with greater initial variability would exhibit superior strength adaptations. Fifty-eight subjects (36 men, 22 women) completed a 9-week resistance training protocol focused on lower-body exercises. Subjects were stratified into stronger (SG) and weaker (WG) groups based on their squat 1RM/body mass ratio. They were further divided into high variability (HV) and low variability (LV) subgroups based on baseline FuzzyEn values derived from acceleration signals during squat repetitions. Strength gains and the relationship between initial variability and adaptability were analyzed using mixed ANOVA and correlation tests. Both SG and WG showed significant strength gains postintervention (p < 0.001). In SG, HV subjects achieved greater strength gains (25.18 ± 12.98 kg; 19.93 ± 11.55%) than LV subjects (15.77 ± 9.03 kg; 14.47 ± 9.35%, p = 0.029), with a significant positive correlation between FuzzyEn and strength gains (r = 0.550, p < 0.01). Conversely, no significant differences in strength gains were observed between HV and LV subgroups within WG. The results suggest that HV in SG indicates greater neuromuscular adaptability, whereas in WG, variability may represent noise that does not promote adaptability. Initial motor variability could be a valuable tool for predicting resistance training adaptability in stronger individuals, with HV being associated with greater relative strength gains. Motor variability should be considered when designing individualized training programs, because higher initial variability may indicate greater adaptative potential in advanced athletes, allowing for more targeted loading and periodization decisions.
Longitudinal Changes in Countermovement Jump and Isometric Mid-Thigh Pull Metrics and Their Relationship With On-Court Basketball Performance in Elite Female Collegiate Basketball Players.
Aguila Camacho A, Ochoa Ahmed F, Rowlett M … +4 more , Ríos-Gallardo PT, Cabarkapa DV, Cabarkapa D, Montalvo S
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42155075 · Publisher ↗
Aguila Camacho, A, Ochoa Ahmed, F, Rowlett, M, Ríos-Gallardo, PT, Cabarkapa, DV, Cabarkapa, D, and Montalvo, S. Longitudinal changes in countermovement jump and isometric mid-thigh pull metrics and their relationship wit...
Aguila Camacho, A, Ochoa Ahmed, F, Rowlett, M, Ríos-Gallardo, PT, Cabarkapa, DV, Cabarkapa, D, and Montalvo, S. Longitudinal changes in countermovement jump and isometric mid-thigh pull metrics and their relationship with on-court basketball performance in elite female collegiate basketball players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-To quantify within-subject relationships among countermovement jump (CMJ) and isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) variables, describe their temporal behavior across a competitive season, and examine their association with game performance in female collegiate basketball. Eighteen athletes (21.6 ± 1.9 years; 69.9 ± 9.1 kg; 171.6 ± 8.2 cm) completed CMJ and IMTP testing for 33 weeks. Within-subject (demeaned) Spearman correlation matrices were used to identify functional clusters. Representative CMJ (jump height, peak power, contraction time, reactive strength index(mod) and IMTP (peak force, impulse 100 ms, rate of force development [RFD] 50 ms) variables were modeled longitudinally with linear mixed-effects models (random intercepts; autoregressive (1) for a week). Game outcomes from 24 contests were linked to the nearest prior test and evaluated with bivariate Spearman correlations and leave-one-out cross-validated (LOOCV) linear models. Countermovement jump variables clustered into (a) force-production measures (e.g., impulses/peak power; moderate-high positive associations), (b) performance outcomes (jump height with relative power), and (c) temporal measures (contraction/phase durations). Isometric mid-thigh pull variables formed tight early impulse and RFD clusters, with peak-force measures grouping separately. Cross-test associations were generally small (|ρ| ≤ ∼0.30), indicating complementary constructs. Mixed-model marginal means showed modest, nonuniform seasonal trends-modified reactive strength index (mRSI) tended to increase and contraction time to decrease late season, while IMTP peak force exhibited a mid-season rise-amid substantial within-player variability. For game performance, only mRSI showed a statistically significant positive correlation with point differential (ρ = 0.46, p = 0.024); other variables were small and nonsignificant. Single-variable LOOCV models explained little variance in point differential (R2_cv ≤ 0.04). Countermovement jump and IMTP capture largely independent neuromuscular qualities and exhibit modest, test-specific seasonal changes. Although mRSI relates positively to game point differential, single neuromuscular metrics showed limited standalone predictive value, supporting their use primarily for monitoring readiness in conjunction with contextual factors rather than for game-to-game prediction.
The Acute Effect of a Diaphragmatic Breathing Warm-Up on Maximal Deadlift Performance.
Katz NS, Rossow LM, Fahs CA
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42155066 · Publisher ↗
Katz, NS, Rossow, LM, and Fahs, CA. The acute effect of a diaphragmatic breathing warm-up on maximal deadlift performance. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect...
Katz, NS, Rossow, LM, and Fahs, CA. The acute effect of a diaphragmatic breathing warm-up on maximal deadlift performance. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of acute diaphragmatic breathing practice on muscular strength (deadlift 1 repetition maximum) performance. Forty resistance-trained adults (32 men, 8 women; age 24.8 ± 6.8 years) completed 2 testing sessions in a randomized crossover design. Each session involved a standardized warm-up followed by a 1-repetition maximum (1RM) deadlift assessment. In the experimental condition, subjects performed a 5-minute diaphragmatic breathing protocol in the supine position before testing. Deadlift 1RM was significantly greater in the diaphragmatic breathing condition than control (163.6 ± 47.1 vs. 160.7 ± 49.6 kg; mean difference = 2.9 kg, +2.8%; p < 0.05). The effect size was small (Cohen's d = 0.34). Twenty-four subjects (60%) demonstrated improved performance (mean +8.1 kg, +6.6%), while 16 (40%) subject showed no change or a decrease in 1RM (mean -4.8 kg, -2.8%). A brief diaphragmatic breathing warm-up produced a statistically significant but small improvement in maximal deadlift performance. Given its simplicity, minimal time requirement, and the fact it requires basic equipment (e.g., a bench or box for foot support and a foam roller placed between the knees), diaphragmatic breathing may serve as a practical warm-up strategy for athletes and lifters seeking marginal gains in maximal strength performance.
Mechanical Variables Derived From Submaximal Back Squat Performance Are Positively Associated With Running Performance in Highly Trained Endurance Athletes.
Jaén-Carrillo D, Cartón-Llorente A, García-Ramos A … +1 more , Santos L
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 Jul · PMID 42139598 · Publisher ↗
Jaén-Carrillo, D, Cartón-Llorente, A, García-Ramos, A, and Santos, L. Mechanical variables derived from submaximal back squat performance are positively associated with running performance in highly trained endurance ath...
Jaén-Carrillo, D, Cartón-Llorente, A, García-Ramos, A, and Santos, L. Mechanical variables derived from submaximal back squat performance are positively associated with running performance in highly trained endurance athletes. J Strength Cond Res 40(7): 799-806, 2026-The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between lower-body maximal neuromuscular capacities and endurance running performance. Fifteen highly trained endurance runners completed 3 sessions. The first determined one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the half squat. The second assessed maximal neuromuscular capacities ( L0 : maximal theoretical load; V0 : maximal theoretical velocity; Aline : area under the load-velocity relationship line, used as a proxy for maximal power) and strength deficit (mean propulsive velocity [MPV] at 40-90% 1RM). The third measured running speed, ground contact time, cadence, and leg stiffness during 9- and 3-minute time trials. Pearson correlation analyses, with the significance level set at p < 0.05, revealed a positive association between Aline and leg stiffness during both the 9-minute ( r = 0.552, p = 0.033) and 3-minute ( r = 0.580, p = 0.023) time trials. In addition, leg stiffness was also significantly associated with strength deficit, showing moderate correlations with MPV at 60% 1RM ( r = 0.585, p = 0.022) and 70% 1RM ( r = 0.555, p = 0.032) in the 9-minute trial, and at 50% 1RM ( r = 0.611, p = 0.016), 60% 1RM ( r = 0.685, p = 0.005), 70% 1RM ( r = 0.653, p = 0.008), and 80% 1RM ( r = 0.552, p = 0.033) in the 3-minute trial. Given the established association between leg stiffness and running efficiency, long-distance runners may benefit from incorporating explosive strength training with moderate to high loads (50-80% 1RM) to enhance power output and maintain propulsive force during endurance running.
Impact of Sleep Restriction and Intensified Training on Mucosal Immunity and Psychological Responses in Young Soccer Players.
Ferreira ABM, Halson S, Galvão-Coelho NL … +3 more , Almeida RN, Nakamura FY, Mortatti AL
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 Jul · PMID 42139594 · Publisher ↗
de Morais Ferreira, AB, Halson, S, Galvão-Coelho, NL, de Almeida, RN, Nakamura, FY, and Mortatti, AL. Impact of sleep restriction and intensified training on mucosal immunity and psychological responses in young soccer p...
de Morais Ferreira, AB, Halson, S, Galvão-Coelho, NL, de Almeida, RN, Nakamura, FY, and Mortatti, AL. Impact of sleep restriction and intensified training on mucosal immunity and psychological responses in young soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 40(7): e703-e713, 2026-This study analyzed the effects of training intensification during a period of sleep restriction (SR) on mucosal immunity (salivary IgA), upper respiratory tract health, mood states, and stress tolerance in young soccer players. Sixteen male youth soccer players completed 7 weeks of training with varied workloads. Weeks 3 and 5 involved a 75% increase in internal training load (ITL); however, although sleep was unrestricted in week 3, allowing for an increase in total sleep time (TST) (+53 minutes vs. baseline), week 5 included a ∼10% reduction in TST (-44 minutes vs. baseline). Internal training load was assessed using session-rating of perceived exertion, and sleep was monitored via actigraphy. Salivary IgA, upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) severity (Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey), perceived recovery status (PRS), stress tolerance (Daily Analysis of Life Demands of Athletes), and mood states (Brunel Mood Scale) were evaluated weekly. Salivary IgA concentrations significantly decreased in both intensified training weeks (week 3: β = -87.41, p = 0.007; week 5: β = -114.04, p < 0.001). However, only in week 5, this reduction was accompanied by a significant increase in URTI severity ( p = 0.001), heightened fatigue (χ 2 (6) = 42.499, p < 0.001), reduced vigor (χ 2 (6) = 49.422, p < 0.001), impaired PRS ( p < 0.001), and lower stress tolerance ( p = 0.001). In contrast, during week 3, despite the intensified training, PRS, mood states, and stress tolerance remained stable. These findings emphasize the protective role of adequate sleep during intensified training, as greater sleep availability in week 3 may have mitigated the negative effects observed in week 5. Ensuring sufficient sleep during periods of high training loads is essential to maintain physical and psychological health.
Agreement Between a Photograph-Based Five-Compartment Body Composition Model and a Three-Compartment Reference Among Trained Adults.
Lafontant K, Smith S, Livingston J … +7 more , Gonzalez C, Nguyen NLN, Kampiyil S, Da Silva Barbera MA, Johnson B, Stout JR, Fukuda DH
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42139570 · Publisher ↗
Lafontant, K, Smith, S, Livingston, J, Gonzalez, C, Nguyen, NLN, Kampiyil, S, Da Silva Barbera, MA, Johnson, B, Stout, JR, and Fukuda, DH. Agreement between a photograph-based 5-compartment body composition model and a 3...
Lafontant, K, Smith, S, Livingston, J, Gonzalez, C, Nguyen, NLN, Kampiyil, S, Da Silva Barbera, MA, Johnson, B, Stout, JR, and Fukuda, DH. Agreement between a photograph-based 5-compartment body composition model and a 3-compartment reference among trained adults. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-Multi-compartment models are widely accepted as the current standard for body composition assessments, yet the need for laboratory-based tests can make these models inaccessible for practitioners. A multi-compartment model based on photogrammetry and bioelectrical impedance (Bennett5C) has recently been proposed, yet it has not been validated in another cohort. We assessed agreement between a Siri 3-compartment (Siri3C) reference and Bennett5C with and without corrections for total body water (TBW; using bioelectrical impedance) and total body volume (TBV; using photogrammetry) in a sample of 52 adult high intensity functional training practitioners (men: n = 34, women: n = 18, age: 34.9 ± 11.2 years, BMI = 26.0 ± 3.5 kg/m2). Bland-Altman analyses and concordance correlation coefficients (CCC) were used, with the Bonferroni-corrected alpha set at p < 0.017. With corrections, Bennett5C tended to underestimate fat mass (bias = 1.48 kg), overestimate fat-free mass (bias = -1.48 kg), and underestimate body fat percentage (bias = 1.63%) at a statistically significant level (p ≤ 0.014; CCC, 0.743-0.966) with wide limits of agreement. Without corrections, Bennett5C significantly differed from Siri3C (p < 0.001; CCC, 0.395-0.856), and produced negative body composition values for 4 subjects. Corrected TBV had adequate agreement with the criterion measure of air displacement plethysmography (bias = 0.05 L; limits of agreement = -2.37, 2.48 L; CCC = 0.997; p = 0.763). When TBV and TBW estimates are corrected, practitioners can use Bennett5C to estimate body composition within trained populations but should be wary of the wide limits of agreement and consider alternative equations.
Chronic Comparison of Upper- and Lower-Body Muscle Soreness in Trained Individuals Completing Traditional or Accentuated Eccentric Loading.
Lis R, Long A, Goode N … +8 more , McDowell K, Nelson D, Mizuguchi S, Duca M, Baur M, Wagle JP, Fry AC, Stone MH
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 Jul · PMID 42139569 · Publisher ↗
Lis, R, Long, A, Goode, N, McDowell, K, Nelson, D, Mizuguchi, S, Duca, M, Baur, M, Wagle, JP, Fry, AC, and Stone, MH. Chronic comparison of upper- and lower-body muscle soreness in trained individuals completing traditio...
Lis, R, Long, A, Goode, N, McDowell, K, Nelson, D, Mizuguchi, S, Duca, M, Baur, M, Wagle, JP, Fry, AC, and Stone, MH. Chronic comparison of upper- and lower-body muscle soreness in trained individuals completing traditional or accentuated eccentric loading. J Strength Cond Res 40(7): 739-746, 2026-The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of accentuated eccentric loading (AEL) and traditional resistance training (TRAD) in terms of muscular soreness in the barbell bench press (BP; anterior deltoid, triceps brachii, and pectoralis major) and back squat (BS; vastus lateralis and gluteus maximus). Eighteen recreationally active subjects (males: n = 12, age: 22.75 ± 4 years, BW: 89.42 ± 21.09 kg, BP one rep max [1RM]: 104.67 ± 23.58 kg, relative BP 1RM: 1.19 ± 0.22, BS 1RM: 140.75 ± 39.17 kg, relative BS 1RM: 1.59 ± 0.34, females: n = 6, age: 23.6 ± 4.5 years, BW: 64.3 ± 10.8 kg, BP 1RM: 51.7 ± 13.4 kg, relative BP 1RM: 0.80 ± 0.13, BS 1RM: 93.7 ± 18 kg, relative BS 1RM: 1.47 ± 0.30) completed 4 weeks of strength endurance training. Resistance training occurred 3 times a week (M, W, F), whereas speed and agility happened twice weekly (T and R). Subjects completed the 10-cm palpation and movement visual analog scale (PVAS and MVAS, respectively) immediately before (PRE) and after (POST) every training session. The lower-body (LB) musculature soreness statistically decreased over time for the AEL group only for the MVAS ( p < 0.05). The PVAS and MVAS showed statistically significant lower LB scores in AEL compared with TRAD. We conclude that AEL training appears to create less soreness, specifically within the LB when compared with TRAD. Practitioners should not be concerned about excessive soreness when completing AEL training.
A Novel Method of Clinical Strength Assessment: Reliability and Validity of a Crane Scale for the Quadriceps and Hamstrings.
Hedt C, Silva C, Lambert B … +4 more , Goble H, Armond D, Bowden M, McCulloch P
J Strength Cond Res · 2026 May · PMID 42139559 · Publisher ↗
Hedt, C, Silva, C, Lambert, B, Goble, H, Armond, D, Bowden, M, and McCulloch, P. A novel method of clinical strength assessment: reliability and validity of a crane scale for the quadriceps and hamstrings. J Strength Con...
Hedt, C, Silva, C, Lambert, B, Goble, H, Armond, D, Bowden, M, and McCulloch, P. A novel method of clinical strength assessment: reliability and validity of a crane scale for the quadriceps and hamstrings. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-This study evaluated a low-cost crane scale (CS) for quadriceps and hamstring isometric strength testing versus an isokinetic dynamometer (IKD) and a handheld dynamometer (HHD). Twenty-two healthy adults completed 2 sessions ≥72 hours apart, performing 3 5-second maximal isometric contractions per device, per tester, in standardized seated positions (quadriceps 90° flexion; hamstrings 60°). Outcomes were torque (N·m), coefficients of variation (CV), and intra-/interobserver reliability (ICC). A one-way repeated-measures ANOVA with Bonferroni adjustments compared devices; ICCs (2-way mixed) with 95% CIs quantified reliability; α (ρ) was set at 0.05. For knee extension, CS produced mean and peak torque comparable with IKD, whereas HHD was significantly lower than both CS and IKD (p < 0.001). For knee flexion, CS exceeded HHD (p = 0.023) with no significant difference from IKD. Measurement variability (CV) was lower for CS and IKD than HHD in extension (p < 0.001); IKD showed the lowest variability in flexion (p ≤ 0.010). Inter- and intraobserver reliability were excellent (ICC > 0.70) across devices, with CS demonstrating the highest ICCs and narrowest confidence intervals. The CS demonstrated strong agreement with IKD and superior reliability relative to HHD, supporting its potential use as a practical, portable alternative for objective lower-extremity strength assessment in applied settings.
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