Sundharaj V, Mohanraj S, Sarveswari S
… +1 more, Vijayakumar V
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41484321
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Benzimidazole derivatives are widely recognized for their critical importance in the realm of bioactive natural products, pharmaceuticals, and advanced functional materials. This review elucidates recent developments in...Benzimidazole derivatives are widely recognized for their critical importance in the realm of bioactive natural products, pharmaceuticals, and advanced functional materials. This review elucidates recent developments in the synthesis of benzimidazole derivatives employing a variety of catalytic methodologies. Metal-catalyzed systems, which incorporate copper or palladium, facilitate cyclization reactions under mild reaction conditions, thereby enhancing both yield and selectivity. Base-catalyzed systems foster efficient condensation and cyclization via substrate deprotonation, thereby obviating the necessity for costly metals. Nanocatalytic systems exploit nanomaterials characterized by high surface areas to augment catalytic activity and improve reaction efficiency. Photocatalytic systems harness visible light to propel reactions at ambient temperatures, thereby contributing to environmentally sustainable processes with diminished energy consumption. Representative examples and the fundamental reaction mechanisms pertaining to each approach are analyzed, highlighting the versatility and potential inherent in these catalytic methodologies. This comprehensive review accentuates the significance of optimizing synthetic pathways for benzimidazole derivatives, in line with contemporary trends advocating for sustainable and efficient chemical synthesis.
Rahmati-Dehkordi F, Abdolghaderi S, Ferdosi F
… +8 more, Ebrahimi N, Talebi Taheri A, Dadgostar E, Nabavizadeh F, Shafiee Ardestani M, Mohammadpour M, Varma RS, Tamtaji OR
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Dec · PMID 41400876
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Phycocyanin, a phycobiliprotein, is a known antimicrobial and anticancer compound, and among nanoparticle formulations, its use has garnered significant attention regarding the treatment of cancers and bacterial and para...Phycocyanin, a phycobiliprotein, is a known antimicrobial and anticancer compound, and among nanoparticle formulations, its use has garnered significant attention regarding the treatment of cancers and bacterial and parasitic diseases. Phycocyanin has been deployed in a wide range of nanoparticles amid polymer (chitosan, polylactic acid-co-glycolic acid, polypyrrole, and hydrogel nanoparticles) and non-polymer (liposomes, phytosomes, micelles, microspheres, manganese dioxide, and black phosphorus quantum dots) entities. Phycocyanin-based nanoparticles were previously limited to utilizing their anticancer and antimicrobial effects, but recent studies have revealed that they target a variety of cellular and molecular processes, such as apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, angiogenesis, and metastasis. In addition, phycocyanin-based nanoparticles have demonstrated efficacy in inhibiting the growth of various parasites and bacteria, including Cryptosporidium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Serratia marcescens, and Bacillus cereus. Herein, various forms of phycocyanin-based nanoparticles are evaluated, emphasizing the cellular and molecular pathways involved in cancer and microbial therapy.
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Dec · PMID 41389179
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The pursuit of metal-free multicomponent reactions (MCRs) via direct C-H bond functionalization represents a significant stride toward sustainable and atom-economical organic synthesis. This review comprehensively examin...The pursuit of metal-free multicomponent reactions (MCRs) via direct C-H bond functionalization represents a significant stride toward sustainable and atom-economical organic synthesis. This review comprehensively examines advances from 2016 to 2025 in metal-free C-H functionalization strategies integrated with MCRs for the efficient construction of complex, bioactive heterocycles. Key mechanistic platforms explored include iminium ion activation, azomethine ylide chemistry, radical-mediated transformations, visible-light photoredox catalysis, and base-mediated protocols. Each approach is critically analyzed in terms of substrate scope, regioselectivity and stereoselectivity, green metrics, and practical applicability. The strategic use of renewable feedstocks, solvent-free conditions, and recyclable catalysts further highlights the field's alignment with green chemistry principles. Collectively, these methodologies underscore the growing potential of metal-free MCRs in delivering structurally diverse heterocyclic scaffolds for pharmaceutical and materials applications.
Khan S, Khan S, Khan J
… +8 more, Ali N, Khan A, Ali F, Ali S, Nawaz A, Al Balushi RA, Al-Hinaai MM, Al-Harthy T
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Nov · PMID 41317231
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Photocatalytic technologies are essential for addressing energy and environmental challenges. Metal halide perovskites (MHPs) have emerged as promising photocatalysts owing to their adjustable bandgaps, high efficiency,...Photocatalytic technologies are essential for addressing energy and environmental challenges. Metal halide perovskites (MHPs) have emerged as promising photocatalysts owing to their adjustable bandgaps, high efficiency, and broad visible-light absorption capabilities. However, despite their potential, MHPs encounter obstacles that impede their effective use. These challenges include the necessity to maintain stability in aqueous and oxygen-rich environments as well as at elevated temperatures. Moreover, issues such as electron-hole recombination and limited oxidation activity during photocatalytic processes present significant hurdles that must be overcome for the successful application of MHPs. This review addresses the latest advancements in the application of MHPs for photocatalytic tasks, such as hydrogen production, carbon dioxide reduction, degradation of organic contaminants, and removal of nitrogen oxides. The first part of the review addresses the basic principles of photocatalysis, the crystalline structures, coordination environments, and distinguishing features of MHP photocatalysts. A range of strategies has been investigated to improve the performance of MHP photocatalysts and address challenges such as low stability, excessive charge recombination, and limited active sites. These strategies involve controlling morphology, forming heterojunctions, modifying surfaces or interfaces, and encapsulating the materials. The paper further examines the ongoing challenges and future prospects of MHP photocatalysts, highlighting their promising potential and significant role in a wide range of photocatalytic applications. Highlights Structures, properties, coordination environments, and basic principles of metal halide perovskite photocatalysts. Comprehensive summary of efficient photocatalytic strategies activity and stability of metal halide perovskites. Current progresses in the photocatalytic H generation, CO reduction, organics degradation, and NO remediation. Current challenges and future prospective of metal halide perovskite as efficient photocatalysts.
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Nov · PMID 41239055
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The agriculture sector faces significant challenges from weeds and pests, exacerbated by climate change. Traditional control methods have led to the emergence of difficult to manage resistant populations, threatening glo...The agriculture sector faces significant challenges from weeds and pests, exacerbated by climate change. Traditional control methods have led to the emergence of difficult to manage resistant populations, threatening global food security. AgroDrug conjugates (AgDCs) offer a promising approach to enhance agrodrug bioavailability and systemic distribution within plant tissues. This can be accomplished by attaching agrodrugs to molecular carriers such as sugars or amino acids. AgDCs aim to improve targeting and efficiency, while reducing the environmental impact. This review seeks to deliver a thorough and critical analysis of the chemical architectures and underlying mechanisms of action of AgDCs as documented in current scientific literature. Moreover, we highlight advances and knowledge gaps in AgDC design, including metabolic stability, ecological safety, and field-scale performance. Addressing these challenges will be essential to unlock the full potential of AgDCs as next-generation tools for sustainable and resilient crop protection.
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Nov · PMID 41214269
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Nanozymes, enzyme-like nanomaterials (NMs), present a compelling alternative to natural enzymes due to their superior catalytic activity, stability, and low cost. Among them, cerium dioxide (CeO) NMs exhibit diverse cata...Nanozymes, enzyme-like nanomaterials (NMs), present a compelling alternative to natural enzymes due to their superior catalytic activity, stability, and low cost. Among them, cerium dioxide (CeO) NMs exhibit diverse catalytic activities, including oxidase, peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, phosphatase, haloperoxidase, urease, uricase, DNase I, DNA photolyase, and ROS scavenging. The catalytic efficiency of CeO nanozymes is largely influenced by oxygen vacancies, surface valence states, and the Ce/Ce redox cycle, which are crucial in enhancing their enzymatic functions. This review explores the different dimensional structures of CeO nanozymes, such as zero dimensions (0D), one dimension (1D), two dimensions (2D), and three dimensions (3D). It outlines their synthesis methods, which include physical, chemical, and biological approaches. Additionally, it examines surface modification strategies like ion exchange, small molecule binding, and macromolecular capping, which can either promote or inhibit their catalytic activity. By providing a comprehensive overview of the development, synthesis methods, dimensional variations, and surface modifications of CeO nanozymes, this review highlights their enzyme-mimicking properties and their application potential in biosensing technologies. Furthermore, it offers insights into future prospects, focusing on advancing their catalytic efficiency and expanding their use across different fields. The review emphasizes the need for continued research to enhance the practical applications of CeO nanozymes, which hold significant promise for the future of biosensing and other catalytic processes.
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Nov · PMID 41212387
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As a result of the high pharmaceutical relevance of organofluorine compounds in drug discovery, the synthetic approach towards this class of derivatives has generated increasing interest in organic chemistry over the pas...As a result of the high pharmaceutical relevance of organofluorine compounds in drug discovery, the synthetic approach towards this class of derivatives has generated increasing interest in organic chemistry over the past decade. Metathesis, with the manipulation of the C = C double bonds, is considered to be a powerful tool in preparative organic chemistry to access various sophisticated and densely functionalized scaffolds with olefin bonds in their structure. The current paper is intended to describe, investigate, and analyze the most impactful advances and applications of metathesis with organofluorine molecular entities achieved since the outstanding review by Fustero, Haufe and others (Chem. Rev. 2015, 115, 871 - 930, dx.doi.org/10.1021/cr500182a) published a decade ago.
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Oct · PMID 41136821
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Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have garnered considerable interest and have been thoroughly investigated across various research disciplines. Consequently, substantial work has focused on creating MOF catalysts. This re...Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have garnered considerable interest and have been thoroughly investigated across various research disciplines. Consequently, substantial work has focused on creating MOF catalysts. This review provides a detailed examination of the use of different MOFs in organic synthesis and catalytic organic reactions. We aim for this study to offer insights that facilitate the development of new or enhanced MOFs, promoting their functional properties for practical applications.
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Oct · PMID 41066029
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In modern organic synthesis, the catalytic borrowing hydrogen methodology has emerged as a transformative strategy for the N-alkylation of amines with water as the only byproduct. Here, we have highlighted the recent dev...In modern organic synthesis, the catalytic borrowing hydrogen methodology has emerged as a transformative strategy for the N-alkylation of amines with water as the only byproduct. Here, we have highlighted the recent developments over the period (approximately) from 2014 to 2024. We have discussed all the emerging catalytic systems, such as the use of non-metallic, homogeneous, heterogeneous, and electrocatalysts using noble and non-noble metals, with an emphasis on advancements that expand reaction scope, improve selectivity, and enhance selectivity. Ultimately, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of catalytic N-alkylation processes, focusing on sustainable, efficient methodologies for a greener approach.
Tan Y, Pierrard F, Hui K
… +2 more, Riant O, Jiang X
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Oct · PMID 41062887
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The potential to conduct palladium-catalyzed Tsuji-Trost reactions in biological systems opens unprecedented opportunities to probe and manipulate cellular processes. However, implementing such transformations remains ch...The potential to conduct palladium-catalyzed Tsuji-Trost reactions in biological systems opens unprecedented opportunities to probe and manipulate cellular processes. However, implementing such transformations remains challenging due to the stringent requirements imposed by biocompatibility. To date, Tsuji-Trost allylation has not yet been successfully demonstrated in living cells, and in vivo applications remain unrealized, primarily due to the presumed incompatibility between traditional organic chemistry and the complex aqueous environments of biological systems. Nevertheless, significant progress has been made in this area over the past two decades. The successful execution of a Tsuji-Trost reaction in aqueous media requires careful consideration of several key factors, including the choice of catalyst, ligand, leaving group, and nucleophile, as well as the influence of water on reactivity and selectivity. In this review, we highlight the latest advancements in biocompatible palladium-catalyzed Tsuji-Trost-type reactions, with a particular focus on deprotection and allylation reactions conducted in aqueous environments and in living systems. Further development of in vivo Tsuji-Trost allylation is expected in the near future.
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Oct · PMID 41051445
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Gas sensing is vital for environmental monitoring, safety, and healthcare. This review highlights the role of noncovalent interactions, hydrogen bonding, π-π stacking, and electrostatic forces in enhancing the sensitivit...Gas sensing is vital for environmental monitoring, safety, and healthcare. This review highlights the role of noncovalent interactions, hydrogen bonding, π-π stacking, and electrostatic forces in enhancing the sensitivity and selectivity of metal-coordinated complexes (MCCs) in gas sensors. These reversible interactions enable rapid, real-time detection through measurable changes in properties. For example, hydrogen bonding in amino-functionalized metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) enhances the detection of ammonia, and π-π stacking in phthalocyanine films aids in identifying aromatic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene. Open metal sites in frameworks allow electrostatic gas binding, affecting electrical resistance, while perturbing the coordination sphere in porphyrins enables optical sensing. This review encompasses MCC platforms, ranging from Schiff base complexes to 3D MOFs and 2D materials, and highlights their tunable properties for gases such as VOCs, CO, SO, and CH, as well as other gases. Despite the advantages of reversibility and quick response, challenges include environmental stability and complex interactions. Future directions involve integrating machine learning for data analysis and developing durable hybrid materials to improve sensing performance technology.
Paliwal C, Dharmendra, Jat B
… +3 more, Dangroo NA, Sharma S, Ameta C
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Oct · PMID 41045438
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Quantum dots (QDs) were initially explored for their unique optical and electronic properties in photocatalysis, where they demonstrated remarkable efficiency in facilitating selective oxidation, reduction, and carbon-ca...Quantum dots (QDs) were initially explored for their unique optical and electronic properties in photocatalysis, where they demonstrated remarkable efficiency in facilitating selective oxidation, reduction, and carbon-carbon (C-C) bond formation under mild conditions. In particular, their strong absorption in the visible-light region enables efficient harnessing of solar energy, making them ideal candidates for visible-light-driven transformations. Over time, their potential has expanded beyond photocatalysis, and QDs have increasingly been utilized as catalysts in organic synthesis, offering energy-efficient alternatives to traditional methods. Their size-dependent bandgap and high surface area make them versatile tools for driving chemical reactions in a sustainable manner. Recent studies have also highlighted their ability to mediate single-electron transfer (SET) processes, which enhance both reaction efficiency and selectivity. Moreover, QDs have been incorporated into artificial photosystems, improving charge transfer mechanisms and broadening their catalytic applications. In this review, we present the recent advancements in the use of quantum dots in organic synthesis, focusing on their growing role as catalysts in a wide range of transformations. We also explore their potential in sustainable chemistry and the expanding applications of nanotechnology-driven, visible-light-mediated chemical processes.
Spirooxindole compounds have attracted considerable research interest due to their distinctive structural features and remarkable biological properties. In recent years, a wide range of synthetic strategies has been deve...Spirooxindole compounds have attracted considerable research interest due to their distinctive structural features and remarkable biological properties. In recent years, a wide range of synthetic strategies has been developed to construct spirooxindoles, particularly those featuring a spiro-carbon Linked to diverse Heterocyclic or carbocyclic frameworks, further enhancing their importance. Given the breadth of these synthetic approaches, a comprehensive review is crucial to providing a systematic overview of the field and facilitate access to various methodologies. This review provides a thorough analysis of current developments in spirooxindole synthesis, covering research published from 2020 to 2024. The classification is organized into four main sections based on the size of the ring attached to the spiro-carbon: three-membered, five-membered, six-membered, and seven-membered rings. These rings may be carbocyclic or may contain one or two heteroatoms, such as nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur, further influencing the diversity of synthetic strategies and the properties of the resulting spirooxindoles.
The present energy-intensive and feedstock-dependent Haber-Bosch (H-B) process is being replaced with an electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction (E-NRR) to produce ammonia (NH), powered by renewable electricity. The...The present energy-intensive and feedstock-dependent Haber-Bosch (H-B) process is being replaced with an electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction (E-NRR) to produce ammonia (NH), powered by renewable electricity. The main obstacles to the NRR are the integral inertness of the N molecule and competition from the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Although transition metal-based electrocatalysts can overcome the kinetic restriction of N≡N activation via the back-donation method, the d-orbital electrons of transition metal atoms promote the creation of a metal-H bond, which increases the undesired HER. The electrocatalytic NRR activity has increased in recent years owing to carbon-based materials with easily tunable electrical structures. As a result, it is essential to evaluate the latest advances in theoretical and experimental aspects of carbon-based catalysts (CBCs) for NRR. This review focuses on the use of various CBCs and the modifications done to them for their effective use in the E-NRR, providing a comprehensive understanding of the use of CBCs for the E-NRR and aids further research in the field with the aim of making the E-NRR more efficient.
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40926178
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Aziridines, structurally related to epoxides, are among the most challenging and fascinating heterocycles in organic chemistry due to their increasing applications in asymmetric synthesis, medicinal chemistry, and materi...Aziridines, structurally related to epoxides, are among the most challenging and fascinating heterocycles in organic chemistry due to their increasing applications in asymmetric synthesis, medicinal chemistry, and materials science. These three-membered nitrogen-containing rings serve as key intermediates in the synthesis of chiral amines, complex molecules, and pharmaceutically relevant compounds. This review provides an overview of recent progress in catalytic asymmetric aziridination, focusing on novel methodologies, an analysis of the scope and limitations of each approach, and mechanistic insights.
Controlling the size of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) has been critical in diagnostics, biomolecular sensing, targeted therapy, wastewater treatment, catalysis, and sensing applications. Ultrasmall AuNPs (uAuNPs), with size...Controlling the size of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) has been critical in diagnostics, biomolecular sensing, targeted therapy, wastewater treatment, catalysis, and sensing applications. Ultrasmall AuNPs (uAuNPs), with sizes Ranging from 2 to 5 nm, and gold nanoclusters (AuNCs), with sizes less than 2 nm, are often dealt with interchangeably in the literature, making it challenging to review them separately. Although they are grouped in our discussion, their chemical and physical properties differ significantly, partly due to their electronic properties. The distinct optoelectronic properties of uAuNPs and AuNCs are usually not observed in gold metal and nanoparticles of larger sizes. Since small AuNPs tend to aggregate, several routes have been developed to prevent the formation of larger sizes, such as nucleation within porous materials. Controlling the particle size using synthesis methods is challenging, and uAuNPs and AuNCs can be fabricated simultaneously in the same preparation, necessitating separation and additional laboratory efforts. AuNCs can be stabilized by the prevalent soft ligands, such as phosphine and thiolate, unlike uAuNPs, in which a wide range of ligand sets can be used for stabilization. This review is organized around core sections concerning the synthesis, medical and environmental applications, and calculation studies of uAuNPs. It remains valuable to address the current stimulating market growth and potential market constraints when reviewing the expanding applications of AuNPs in the healthcare sector. A significant proportion of the synthesis processes involve the fabrication of uAuNPs and AuNCs in aqueous solutions. An obvious advantage of this work is that we focus on the medical and environmental applications, which often require water-dispersible nanoparticles. Calculation investigations explain the structural dynamics and importance of fine-tuning the size of uAuNPs to impart distinct properties. A notable control in the HOMO-LUMO energy gap, associated with the number of gold atoms, significantly affects their performance in various applications.
In recent years, nano-piezoelectric materials have demonstrated revolutionary potential in catalytic applications owing to their unique electromechanical coupling effects and mechanical-to-chemical energy conversion capa...In recent years, nano-piezoelectric materials have demonstrated revolutionary potential in catalytic applications owing to their unique electromechanical coupling effects and mechanical-to-chemical energy conversion capabilities. Research focus has shifted from performance optimization of single materials to designing multi-scale band engineering and multi-field coupling mechanisms aimed at enhancing catalytic efficiency. The development of novel nano-piezoelectric cleaning materials has become a research hotspot, with various nontraditional piezoelectric materials being extended into organic degradation, biomedicine, and environmental remediation applications, accelerating the transition of piezocatalysis from laboratory research to practical implementation. This review summarizes recent advancements in piezoelectric nanomaterials for catalysis; briefly introduces the fundamental principles of piezocatalytic technology; highlights applications in organic matter degradation, antibacterial treatment, and heavy metal reduction; and concludes with discussions on current challenges and future development prospects. The article provides valuable references for both research and practical applications of nano-piezoelectric materials in piezocatalysis.
To address the global climate challenge, carbon emissions reduction and carbon neutrality have emerged as pivotal goals for the international community. Copper-based metal-organic framework (Cu-MOF) derivatives exhibit u...To address the global climate challenge, carbon emissions reduction and carbon neutrality have emerged as pivotal goals for the international community. Copper-based metal-organic framework (Cu-MOF) derivatives exhibit unique advantages in electrocatalytic carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CORR) applications due to their controllable pore structure, abundant active sites, and efficient charge transport. Nevertheless, the structure-activity correlation mechanisms and performance enhancement methodologies of Cu-MOF derivatives have not yet been comprehensively elucidated in existing literature. This review systematically summarizes the recent advancements in Cu-MOF derivatives for electrocatalytic CORR, focusing on preparation technologies such as the pyrolysis method, electrochemical in situ reconstruction method, and other methods. Subsequently, we investigated the enhancement mechanism of the reactivity of electrocatalysts by discussing multidimensional aspects, which include structural design, metal composition adjustment, ligand engineering, and composite structure construction. Finally, the critical challenges and future research directions of Cu-MOF derivatives for electrocatalytic CORR are prospectively discussed, which aims to provide theoretical references for the design methods and modification strategies of Cu-MOF derivatives.
In organic synthesis, named reactions are fundamental chemical conversions that fabricate invaluable molecules of high importance. Hence, a deep understanding of these vital reactions is a prerequisite from the organic c...In organic synthesis, named reactions are fundamental chemical conversions that fabricate invaluable molecules of high importance. Hence, a deep understanding of these vital reactions is a prerequisite from the organic chemistry point of view. Basically, the names of these chemical reactions are used as short forms to make it easier to talk or write in the realm of synthetic organic chemistry. Moreover, these vital chemical reactions are the background for understanding the fundamentals of organic chemistry and are robust chemical tools that attain intricacy in molecular architectures, which are otherwise daunting tasks or sometimes impossible to achieve. Therefore, keeping the importance of the organic named reactions in mind, herein, we have comprehensively detailed all literature reporting 50 named reactions taking place in deep eutectic solvents (DESs)-the eco-friendly reaction media. The authors are of the opinion that this systematic collection of such important reactions carried out under green reaction conditions will add value not only to organic syntheses but will also open new opportunities that expand the chemical space for other crucial reactions. Moreover, we believe that these all-in-one named reaction assortments will be very useful to undergraduate as well as postgraduate students, and obviously for Ph.D. scholars and the synthetic chemistry research community in general.
Bai H, Yang S, Wang Z
… +3 more, Zhao Y, Xu Y, Zhang Y
Top Curr Chem (Cham)
· 2025 Aug · PMID 40886224
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Phytosphingosine, a type of sphingolipids, has gained significant attention due to their diverse biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and immunomodulatory properties. These bioactive lipids, pr...Phytosphingosine, a type of sphingolipids, has gained significant attention due to their diverse biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and immunomodulatory properties. These bioactive lipids, predominantly found in plant sources, play crucial roles in cellular signaling and membrane structure. In recent years, the chemical synthesis of phytosphingosine and other sphingolipids have become a major focus in organic chemistry due to the increasing demand for these molecules in pharmacological research and drug development. The synthesis of sphingosine has been extensively reported and is relatively straightforward to implement. However, the synthesis of phytosphingosine is more complex due to the presence of additional chiral centers, leading to a greater diversity of synthetic methods. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advancements in synthetic methodologies for phytosphingosine and its analogs, including asymmetric synthesis and total synthesis using chiral auxiliaries and catalysts. By summarizing recent chemical synthesis advancements, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers interested in the biological activities and synthetic aspects of phytosphingosine and other sphingolipids.