Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Mar · PMID 41198418
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This review emphasizes the strong link between oral/dental disease and aging in pets, highlighting that periodontal disease, tooth resorption, and oral tumors are more common in senior animals. Chronic inflammation from...This review emphasizes the strong link between oral/dental disease and aging in pets, highlighting that periodontal disease, tooth resorption, and oral tumors are more common in senior animals. Chronic inflammation from untreated oral issues can impact overall health. The article discusses the importance of preventative care, accurate diagnosis, and tailored treatment strategies, including advanced periodontal therapy and surgical options. It stresses the significance of proper anesthesia protocols, staff training, and client communication to improve outcomes and quality of life for senior pets. Early detection and ongoing care are crucial to managing oral health and preventing systemic complications in aging animals.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Mar · PMID 41188177
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Drawing from years of experience working with veterinary practices worldwide, this article explores strategies for empowering pet owners through the geriatric journey, with an emphasis on digital client education. From c...Drawing from years of experience working with veterinary practices worldwide, this article explores strategies for empowering pet owners through the geriatric journey, with an emphasis on digital client education. From creating targeted online content and using automation tools to hosting virtual consultations and integrating new technology, veterinary teams can deliver timely, relevant, and empathetic information that improves outcomes for senior pets. The article also addresses nondigital approaches and outlines how to combine both methods for maximum impact, supported by practical examples, case studies, and evidence-based recommendations.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Mar · PMID 41188176
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Geriatric companion animals often present with multimorbidity, requiring a shift from disease-centered to functional, quality-of-life-centered care. Effective management integrates thorough diagnostics, client-reported o...Geriatric companion animals often present with multimorbidity, requiring a shift from disease-centered to functional, quality-of-life-centered care. Effective management integrates thorough diagnostics, client-reported outcomes, and individualized treatment strategies that account for drug interactions, treatment burden, and caregiver capacity. Multimodal pain and symptom management, nutritional and environmental support, and regular medication review are central to sustaining comfort. Interdisciplinary collaboration, accurate record-keeping, and shared decision-making with owners help align medical goals with patient welfare. Ethical considerations, including transitions to hospice care, ensure compassionate, context-driven management that honors both the patient's dignity and the caregiver's values.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41162294
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Vomiting and diarrhea are among the most common reasons for veterinary presentation, yet their management requires more than symptomatic care. These clinical signs often signal complex disruptions in fluid, electrolyte,...Vomiting and diarrhea are among the most common reasons for veterinary presentation, yet their management requires more than symptomatic care. These clinical signs often signal complex disruptions in fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance. This evidence-informed review presents a phased model of fluid therapy-resuscitation, optimization, stabilization, and de-escalation-rooted in veterinary pathophysiology and clinical practicality. Emphasis is placed on individualized assessment, judicious fluid selection, point-of-care diagnostics, and dynamic reassessment. The aim is to support clinicians in providing precise, patient-centered care while minimizing iatrogenic harm.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41136258
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This article emphasizes the importance of personalized fluid therapy in veterinary medicine, highlighting the need to tailor fluid plans based on individual patient needs, species-specific vulnerabilities, and advanced m...This article emphasizes the importance of personalized fluid therapy in veterinary medicine, highlighting the need to tailor fluid plans based on individual patient needs, species-specific vulnerabilities, and advanced monitoring techniques. It discusses the physiology of water movement, types of fluids, and strategies for safe fluid administration, including careful assessment of hydration, electrolyte balance, and potential complications such as fluid overload and local catheter issues. The use of clinical evaluation and point-of-care ultrasound is stressed to optimize fluid management, minimize risks, and improve patient outcomes. Overall, the article advocates for flexible, patient-specific approaches supported by vigilant monitoring and diagnostic tools.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41136257
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This article reviews hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis in small animals, a condition characterized by decreased blood pH and bicarbonate concentration, accompanied by a compensatory increase in PCO₂. Hyperchloremic metab...This article reviews hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis in small animals, a condition characterized by decreased blood pH and bicarbonate concentration, accompanied by a compensatory increase in PCO₂. Hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis arises from chloride retention, excessive sodium loss relative to chloride, or excessive chloride gain relative to sodium. Clinical manifestations are typically related to the underlying disease causing the acidosis. Management focuses on identifying and correcting the primary disorder, while alkalinizing therapy may be considered in severe or refractory cases.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41136256
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This article reviews metabolic alkalosis in small animals, a condition characterized by increased blood pH and elevated serum bicarbonate, most commonly resulting from vomiting, diuretic therapy, or hypoalbuminemia. It d...This article reviews metabolic alkalosis in small animals, a condition characterized by increased blood pH and elevated serum bicarbonate, most commonly resulting from vomiting, diuretic therapy, or hypoalbuminemia. It differentiates between chloride-responsive and chloride-resistant forms and emphasizes the importance of identifying and addressing the underlying cause. Management focuses on fluid therapy and correction of electrolyte abnormalities, particularly chloride and potassium. Careful monitoring and restoration of circulatory volume and electrolyte balance are essential to reestablish normal acid-base status and prevent complications.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41136254
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Hyponatremia, characterized by low serum sodium and hypoosmolality, commonly results from excess water relative to sodium, often due to conditions like syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion, dehydratio...Hyponatremia, characterized by low serum sodium and hypoosmolality, commonly results from excess water relative to sodium, often due to conditions like syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion, dehydration, or fluid shifts. Accurate diagnosis involves assessing serum and urine parameters alongside volume status. Treatment emphasizes identifying and addressing underlying causes, restricting fluid intake, and gradually correcting sodium concentration to prevent neurologic complications such as brain edema. While sodium deficits are rarely calculated, they may be needed in specific cases like cerebral salt wasting. Effective management relies on comprehensive history, physical examination, laboratory testing, and careful monitoring to ensure optimal patient outcomes.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41136253
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Hypernatremia occurs when water loss exceeds sodium, leading to increased serum sodium and hyperosmolality, primarily affecting the brain. It often results renal losses, water evaporation, hypodipsia or restricted water...Hypernatremia occurs when water loss exceeds sodium, leading to increased serum sodium and hyperosmolality, primarily affecting the brain. It often results renal losses, water evaporation, hypodipsia or restricted water intake. Clinical signs range from subtle neurologic changes to severe neurologic impairment. Management requires slow and careful correction of water deficits using hypotonic fluids, with frequent monitoring of serum sodium and osmolality to prevent complications like brain edema. Accurate diagnosis involves assessing water and sodium balance, understanding underlying causes, and implementing a tailored treatment plan, making effective management both challenging and critical for patient safety.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41136252
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High anion gap metabolic acidosis is marked by decreased blood pH and bicarbonate concentration, with normal chloride levels and compensatory hypocapnia. It results from the accumulation of strong acids such as ketoacids...High anion gap metabolic acidosis is marked by decreased blood pH and bicarbonate concentration, with normal chloride levels and compensatory hypocapnia. It results from the accumulation of strong acids such as ketoacids, lactic acid (L- and D-isoforms), uremic acids, or toxins like ethylene glycol. Elevated inorganic phosphate may also contribute. Clinical manifestations typically reflect the underlying disorder rather than the acidosis itself. Management focuses on identifying and treating the primary disease process.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41107161
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Using a framework of understanding the pathophysiology of heart disease, this article discusses considerations for prescribing fluids in patients with cardiac disease as well as those with heart failure. It highlights th...Using a framework of understanding the pathophysiology of heart disease, this article discusses considerations for prescribing fluids in patients with cardiac disease as well as those with heart failure. It highlights the importance of recognizing electrolyte and volume abnormalities, which are common in congestive heart failure, and the need for goal-directed, individualized fluid therapy to maintain balance and prevent worsening of heart failure or renal impairment. The article covers fluid management strategies, including resuscitation, rehydration, maintenance, and considerations during congestive heart failure, along with the significance of monitoring electrolytes - especially sodium potassium, chloride, and magnesium - to optimize patient outcomes.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41107160
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In the body, phosphorus exists primarily as phosphate, an essential ion involved in many metabolic processes, including the production of nucleotide energy carriers such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The majority of p...In the body, phosphorus exists primarily as phosphate, an essential ion involved in many metabolic processes, including the production of nucleotide energy carriers such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The majority of phosphate is stored in bone as hydroxyapatite, forming a slowly exchangeable pool that is available to maintain extracellular phosphate concentration during periods of reduced intake. The pool of phosphate readily available for use in the extracellular fluid accounts for less than 1% of total body phosphate. The most common causes of severe hypophosphatemia requiring treatment are intensive insulin therapy and refeeding syndrome, whereas chronic or acute renal failure is the most common cause of hyperphosphatemia.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41107159
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A wide variety of underlying disease processes in dogs and cats can be associated with potassium disorders. Both moderate-to-severe hypokalemia and hyperkalemia can have immediately life-threatening consequences and vete...A wide variety of underlying disease processes in dogs and cats can be associated with potassium disorders. Both moderate-to-severe hypokalemia and hyperkalemia can have immediately life-threatening consequences and veterinary clinicians must be adept at rapid recognition and correction of dyskalemias. The mainstay of hypokalemia therapy is the treatment of the underlying disease process with concurrent parenteral and/or enteral replacement of potassium. Hyperkalemia therapy aims at stabilizing the cardiac membrane potential to prevent life-threatening complications, transiently increasing intracellular potassium uptake to mitigate the effects of high extracellular potassium concentrations, and enhancing or re-establishing urinary potassium excretion.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41102091
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This article reviews fluid therapy principles for puppies and kittens, emphasizing their higher and distinct fluid and electrolyte requirements compared to adults. It discusses clinical signs, diagnostic tools, and route...This article reviews fluid therapy principles for puppies and kittens, emphasizing their higher and distinct fluid and electrolyte requirements compared to adults. It discusses clinical signs, diagnostic tools, and routes of administration-preferably enteral, with intravenous and intraosseous for severe cases. Tailored maintenance rates and rehydration strategies are outlined, highlighting the importance of rapid, appropriate fluid replacement in dehydration, ongoing losses, and shock. The text underscores the necessity of close monitoring and individualized treatment plans, considering the unique physiology of neonatal and pediatric animals. Proper fluid management is essential to improve survival and health outcomes in this vulnerable population.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41102090
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Acid-base disorders are common in emergent and critically ill patients. Acid-base analysis of blood gas samples can provide important diagnostic and therapeutic information to aid the clinician in managing these dynamic...Acid-base disorders are common in emergent and critically ill patients. Acid-base analysis of blood gas samples can provide important diagnostic and therapeutic information to aid the clinician in managing these dynamic cases. This article describes clinical approaches to both traditional and semi-quantitative acid-base analysis to provide comprehensive insight into the metabolic and respiratory acid-base status of patients with both simple and complex acid-base disturbances.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41087253
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This article discusses calcium homeostasis, emphasizing the importance of ionized calcium (iCa) as the active form regulated primarily by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and other factors. It highlights causes of hypocal...This article discusses calcium homeostasis, emphasizing the importance of ionized calcium (iCa) as the active form regulated primarily by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and other factors. It highlights causes of hypocalcemia, including renal, gastrointestinal, and endocrine disorders, and notes that clinical signs-such as neuromuscular excitability and cardiac arrhythmias-often depend on severity and rapidity of onset. Diagnosis involves measuring serum and ionized calcium, with treatment focusing on correcting underlying causes and carefully restoring iCa levels, especially in animals with seizures or severe clinical signs. Monitoring and avoiding overcorrection are essential for effective management.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41087252
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Hypokalemia occurs due to gastrointestinal or renal losses, transcellular shifts, or reduced intake. Serum potassium reflects extracellular water balance but not total body potassium. Clinical signs, including muscle wea...Hypokalemia occurs due to gastrointestinal or renal losses, transcellular shifts, or reduced intake. Serum potassium reflects extracellular water balance but not total body potassium. Clinical signs, including muscle weakness and arrhythmias, usually develop when levels fall below 2.5-3.0 mEq/L. Diagnosis relies on serum potassium measurement, urinalysis, and investigation of underlying conditions such as kidney disease or gastrointestinal loss. Treatment aims to correct the potassium deficit and manage the primary cause, with intravenous supplementation reserved for severe cases. Proper evaluation and timely therapy are essential to prevent complications and restore electrolyte balance in affected patients.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41087251
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This article highlights the essential physiological roles of magnesium, a predominantly intracellular cation and critical cofactor in numerous enzymatic reactions that support metabolism, electrolyte balance, neuromuscul...This article highlights the essential physiological roles of magnesium, a predominantly intracellular cation and critical cofactor in numerous enzymatic reactions that support metabolism, electrolyte balance, neuromuscular transmission, and muscle contraction. The majority of magnesium is stored in bone, with smaller amounts in muscle. Because 99% resides intracellularly, serum concentrations are a poor reflection of total body stores. Magnesium homeostasis is maintained through intestinal absorption, skeletal storage, and renal regulation. Hypomagnesemia can lead to refractory hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, tremors, and arrhythmias, though its nonspecific clinical signs are often masked by concurrent disorders. The article emphasizes the importance of accurate diagnosis, appropriate management, and supplementation.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41087250
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Chloride, the most abundant extracellular anion, is vital for maintaining electroneutrality, acid-base balance, and neuromuscular function. It closely interacts with sodium and helps regulate osmolality and fluid balance...Chloride, the most abundant extracellular anion, is vital for maintaining electroneutrality, acid-base balance, and neuromuscular function. It closely interacts with sodium and helps regulate osmolality and fluid balance. Corrected chloride concentrations, calculated using measured chloride and sodium concentrations, assist clinicians in distinguishing true chloride imbalances from changes caused by water balance alterations. In acid-base regulation, chloride has an inverse relationship with bicarbonate: hyperchloremia typically indicates metabolic acidosis, while hypochloremia suggests metabolic alkalosis. Recent studies in both humans and animals show that abnormal chloride levels are linked to increased morbidity and mortality, highlighting their clinical significance.