Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41087249
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Hyperkalemia is mainly caused by decreased renal potassium excretion but can also result from increased intake or cellular translocation. It affects water and electrolyte balance, with serum levels serving as a key diagn...Hyperkalemia is mainly caused by decreased renal potassium excretion but can also result from increased intake or cellular translocation. It affects water and electrolyte balance, with serum levels serving as a key diagnostic indicator. Elevated potassium levels (>6.5 mEq/L) can lead to serious cardiac disturbances such as bradycardia, necessitating urgent treatment when levels exceed 7.5 mEq/L. Management includes identifying and treating the underlying cause, with therapies such as insulin, bicarbonate, and terbutaline. Careful monitoring of potassium, especially in patients on certain medications or with renal impairment, is essential to prevent life-threatening complications.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 41076361
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Copper-associated hepatitis is a common cause of primary liver disease in dogs, generally caused by a combination of genetic susceptibility and environmental factors, such as dietary copper intake. Several mutations invo...Copper-associated hepatitis is a common cause of primary liver disease in dogs, generally caused by a combination of genetic susceptibility and environmental factors, such as dietary copper intake. Several mutations involving the genes ATPase copper transporting alpha, ATPase copper transporting beta, and copper metabolism domain containing 1 partly explain heritability in certain breeds. Predisposed breeds include Bedlington terriers, Dobermanns, Labrador retrievers, Cavalier King Charles spaniels, West Highland White terriers, and Dalmatians. Early diagnosis through liver biopsy and copper quantification is critical to prevent cirrhosis. Genetic testing and selective breeding can help manage risk in predisposed breeds.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41076360
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The incidence of respiratory acid-base abnormalities in the critical care unit (CCU) is unknown, although respiratory alkalosis is suspected to be common in this population. Abnormal carbon dioxide levels can have many p...The incidence of respiratory acid-base abnormalities in the critical care unit (CCU) is unknown, although respiratory alkalosis is suspected to be common in this population. Abnormal carbon dioxide levels can have many physiologic effects and in specific patient populations, changes in Pco has been associated with outcome. Monitoring Pco in CCU patients is an important aspect of critical patient assessment and identification of respiratory acid-base abnormalities can be valualbe as a diagnostic tool. Treatment of respiratory alkalosis is largely focused on resolution of the primary disease.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41076359
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This article discusses hypercalcemia, emphasizing its causes, diagnosis, and management. It highlights that serum calcium levels reflect water and protein-bound calcium, with ionized calcium being the active form. Common...This article discusses hypercalcemia, emphasizing its causes, diagnosis, and management. It highlights that serum calcium levels reflect water and protein-bound calcium, with ionized calcium being the active form. Common causes include primary hyperparathyroidism, malignancy, kidney disease, vitamin D toxicity, and systemic illnesses. Clinical signs often relate to neuromuscular and cardiovascular disturbances, especially at severe levels. Diagnosis involves measuring serum and ionized calcium, assessing underlying conditions, and differentiating between parathyroid-dependent and independent causes. Treatment focuses on addressing the primary cause, dietary modifications, or surgical intervention, with careful monitoring to prevent complications.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41076358
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This text outlines a structured approach to diagnose and manage hypoxemia in dogs and cats using pulse oximetry and arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis. It details the main causes-low FiO2, hypoventilation, and venous admi...This text outlines a structured approach to diagnose and manage hypoxemia in dogs and cats using pulse oximetry and arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis. It details the main causes-low FiO2, hypoventilation, and venous admixture-and explains how tools like the A-a gradient, partial pressure of oxygen/FiO2 ratio, and respiratory-rate oxygenation index help assess severity and guide therapy. Stepwise ABG interpretation is emphasized to tailor oxygen support, from conventional methods to high-flow oxygen therapy or mechanical ventilation in severe cases. Continuous monitoring improves prognosis and informs escalation of care.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41058323
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Metabolic acid-base disorders frequently occur in emergency and critically ill patients. Recognizing these disturbances can be challenging, particularly when multiple acid-base imbalances coexist within a single patient....Metabolic acid-base disorders frequently occur in emergency and critically ill patients. Recognizing these disturbances can be challenging, particularly when multiple acid-base imbalances coexist within a single patient. The anion gap (AG) and strong ion gap (SIG) are valuable calculations that help identify complex metabolic acid-base disturbances associated with unmeasured anions. This review provides definitions, reference values, indications, limitations, and guidelines for interpreting AG and SIG changes in clinical settings.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 41047292
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This article discusses respiratory acidosis, a condition caused by inadequate alveolar ventilation leading to elevated Pco levels. It highlights the importance of accurate blood gas analysis for diagnosis, emphasizing th...This article discusses respiratory acidosis, a condition caused by inadequate alveolar ventilation leading to elevated Pco levels. It highlights the importance of accurate blood gas analysis for diagnosis, emphasizing the role of Pco measurement in animals at risk, such as those on sedation or mechanical ventilation. Causes include neuromuscular weakness, airway obstruction, and drug effects. Management involves addressing the primary cause, providing oxygen therapy, and using mechanical ventilation if necessary. Recognizing and treating respiratory acidosis promptly can be crucial in animals with progressive causes of hypoventilation or intracranial hypertension.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 40998669
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Magnesium is an electrolyte essential for life and plays a crucial role in several biochemical and physiologic processes in the body. Dysmagnesemia, defined as the presence of either hypomagnesemia or hypermagnesemia, is...Magnesium is an electrolyte essential for life and plays a crucial role in several biochemical and physiologic processes in the body. Dysmagnesemia, defined as the presence of either hypomagnesemia or hypermagnesemia, is common in critically ill patients and is associated with prolonged hospitalization and increased mortality. This article reviews: (1) magnesium homeostasis, the physiologic roles of magnesium in the body and measurement of magnesium; (2) causes of dysmagnesemia in the critically ill patient; (3) the clinical and biochemical manifestations of dysmagnesemia; and (4) treatment of dysmagnesemia.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 40992981
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Fluid therapy is a crucial part to any treatment plan in small animal patients. It is imperative that clinicians understand the distribution of body fluids and Starling's forces when prescribing fluids for a patient. The...Fluid therapy is a crucial part to any treatment plan in small animal patients. It is imperative that clinicians understand the distribution of body fluids and Starling's forces when prescribing fluids for a patient. The first step in designing a fluid therapy plan is to determine the volume status of the patient and if a bolus of fluids is needed to restore intravascular volume. Once hypovolemia has been addressed (if present), the rest of the fluid therapy plan can be designed and should include replacing dehydration, maintenance fluid requirement, and any ongoing losses.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 40987687
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Critically ill patients may be at higher risk for fluid overload and the development of interstitial edema due to damage to the endothelial glycocalyx, myocardial dysfunction, vasoplegia, renal dysfunction, increased vas...Critically ill patients may be at higher risk for fluid overload and the development of interstitial edema due to damage to the endothelial glycocalyx, myocardial dysfunction, vasoplegia, renal dysfunction, increased vascular permeability, and hypoalbuminemia. While isotonic crystalloids are commonly used for resuscitation of hypovolemic shock, their use should be limited in critically ill patients to avoid complications, including the development of interstitial edema. Blood products should be considered for resuscitation of hemorrhagic shock to limit the volume of crystalloids required. To limit risks associated with fluid administration, fluid resuscitation should be guided by fluid responsiveness.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 40976741
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Balanced isotonic crystalloids are the mainstay of fluid therapy in veterinary medicine. They are an appropriate option in many circumstances, including treatment of shock, dehydration, ongoing fluid losses, and provisio...Balanced isotonic crystalloids are the mainstay of fluid therapy in veterinary medicine. They are an appropriate option in many circumstances, including treatment of shock, dehydration, ongoing fluid losses, and provision of maintenance fluid requirements. However, a variety of other fluid types may be indicated in specific circumstances. These include 0.9% sodium chloride, hypertonic crystalloids, hypotonic crystalloids, synthetic colloids, albumin solutions, and plasma products. Knowledge of the indications and risks of these varied fluid therapy products allows for tailored selection of the most appropriate fluid for individual animals.
Hollinshead F, Sun X, Aono M
… +1 more, Singletary M
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40973426
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Canine puberty is a complex developmental process driven by neuroendocrine regulation and hormonal changes that establish reproductive capability. The maturation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis triggers gameto...Canine puberty is a complex developmental process driven by neuroendocrine regulation and hormonal changes that establish reproductive capability. The maturation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis triggers gametogenesis and reproductive hormone production, with significant variations based on breed, body weight, metabolic status, and environmental factors. Puberty onset differs between males and females, requiring distinct diagnostic criteria. Understanding these factors is essential for breeding management, optimizing reproductive health, and determining the appropriate time for neutering. This study synthesizes current research to provide veterinarians with practical insights into canine reproductive physiology and its clinical applications.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40973425
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The "Purpose Dogs" breeding project, established in 2017, aims to enhance the success rate of assistance dogs through a science-based breeding program that prioritizes the health and temperament of breeding dogs and thei...The "Purpose Dogs" breeding project, established in 2017, aims to enhance the success rate of assistance dogs through a science-based breeding program that prioritizes the health and temperament of breeding dogs and their puppies. The initiative incorporates cutting-edge genetic research, health screenings, and collaborative expertise from various veterinary disciplines. The project emphasizes the importance of both nature and nurture in shaping the behavior and resilience of assistance dogs, ultimately striving to produce healthier, well-adjusted puppies those excel in their roles. Continuous learning and adaptation based on practical experience and scientific evidence are central to the project's mission.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40973424
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Veterinary pediatric oncology remains underexplored, with limited studies and case reports on tumors in young animals. A 2023 study reported 0.004% of dogs under 1 year develop neoplasia. Common pediatric tumors in dogs...Veterinary pediatric oncology remains underexplored, with limited studies and case reports on tumors in young animals. A 2023 study reported 0.004% of dogs under 1 year develop neoplasia. Common pediatric tumors in dogs include cutaneous histiocytomas, papillomas, mast cell tumors, rhabdomyosarcomas, nephroblastomas, and neuroblastomas. These tumors exhibit diverse behaviors, ranging from benign to aggressive. This article reviews the types, biological behavior, and treatment challenges of pediatric tumors in veterinary medicine.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40973423
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Congenital abnormalities range from the extremely complex and life-threatening to somewhat minor or correctable defects, which the neonate can continue to thrive. Understanding normal neonatal development, risks of obtai...Congenital abnormalities range from the extremely complex and life-threatening to somewhat minor or correctable defects, which the neonate can continue to thrive. Understanding normal neonatal development, risks of obtaining said abnormalities, what can be done with those conditions, and which can be managed and or treated, is key when guiding breeders/owners on how to handle these cases.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40973422
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Pharmacologic treatment of neonatal and pediatric veterinary patients requires consideration of their numerous physiologic differences from adults. These differences can influence drug pharmacokinetics (absorption, distr...Pharmacologic treatment of neonatal and pediatric veterinary patients requires consideration of their numerous physiologic differences from adults. These differences can influence drug pharmacokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, or pharmacodynamics). In general, β-lactam antimicrobials and opioids are safe choices. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs should be avoided in animals aged less than 6 weeks, and alpha-2 agonists or acepromazine in animals aged younger than 12 weeks. Other medications (fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines) have age-specific adverse effects. Premarket investigation of drugs in animals aged less than 6 months is uncommon, but package inserts can be a useful source of information for medications such as antiparasitics.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40973421
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Given the unique and rapidly changing physiology of neonatal and pediatric patients, there are special considerations to create a structured, thorough, and complete treatment plan for the critically ill neonatal and pedi...Given the unique and rapidly changing physiology of neonatal and pediatric patients, there are special considerations to create a structured, thorough, and complete treatment plan for the critically ill neonatal and pediatric patient. This article will discuss adaptation of the "Rule of 20" parameters to hospitalized neonatal and pediatric patients.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40973420
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Although considerable progress has been made in understanding the development of the maternal, fetal, and neonatal immune systems, many questions remain. In this review, some old and new achievements are discussed. Durin...Although considerable progress has been made in understanding the development of the maternal, fetal, and neonatal immune systems, many questions remain. In this review, some old and new achievements are discussed. During pregnancy, cats and dogs show some discrepancies; however, in both species, a transient immunosuppression enables establishment of pregnancy. The innate immune system is supported by maternally derived antibodies, which provide some defense against infection by passive transfer of immunoglobulins. Some measures to increase neonatal immune defense, such as natural and artificial hyperimmune solutions, paraimmunity inducers, and vaccinations, will be discussed.