Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40973419
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The gut colonization in the dog is particularly intense in the first days after birth. Optimal gut microbiota development enables the newborn to digest carbohydrates and proteins, produce vitamins, and develop immunity....The gut colonization in the dog is particularly intense in the first days after birth. Optimal gut microbiota development enables the newborn to digest carbohydrates and proteins, produce vitamins, and develop immunity. When colonization is disrupted (cesarean section, bottle-feeding, or neonatal illness) the gut microbiota is altered, potentially leading to long-term health consequences. Preventing gut dysbiosis is essential and can be supported through dam selection, neonatal intake of maternal colostrum, minimizing antimicrobial use, and maternal supplementation with yeasts. However, further research is needed to better characterize the bacterial taxa essential for optimal neonatal development and good health in adulthood.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40973418
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The newborn period is a critical time for a kitten requiring adaptation to extrauterine life. Especially during dystocia and cesarean delivery, newborn kittens are at higher risk for death and birth assessment methods (e...The newborn period is a critical time for a kitten requiring adaptation to extrauterine life. Especially during dystocia and cesarean delivery, newborn kittens are at higher risk for death and birth assessment methods (eg, APGAR score [Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration]) that identify at-risk newborns are crucial for immediate intervention. Colostrum is secreted during the first 24 h of lactation and is crucial for neonatal kitten health including support of their immune system. Successful bottle feeding of neonatal kittens requires meticulous attention to technique, timing, and physiologic considerations; commercial kitten milk replacers are specifically formulated to replicate queen's milk.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40973417
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Resuscitation of newborn puppies and kittens aims to support animals as they transition from intra- to extrauterine life immediately after birth and includes warming and drying, positive pressure ventilation (PPV), oxyge...Resuscitation of newborn puppies and kittens aims to support animals as they transition from intra- to extrauterine life immediately after birth and includes warming and drying, positive pressure ventilation (PPV), oxygen supplementation, reversal drugs and less commonly CPR. PPV is the most important intervention because it facilitates lung aeration, which is essential for successful cardiopulmonary transition at birth. PPV should be initiated as early as possible in apneic or gasping newborns or in those with severe bradycardia. If there is no heartbeat or the HR is < 50/minute, chest compressions are started at a compression:ventilation ratio of 4:1.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 40967954
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In small animals with kidney injuries, fluid therapy is the cornerstone of supportive care. Although fluids do not repair kidney damage, appropriate therapy can stabilize the patient, correct fluid, electrolyte, and acid...In small animals with kidney injuries, fluid therapy is the cornerstone of supportive care. Although fluids do not repair kidney damage, appropriate therapy can stabilize the patient, correct fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base imbalances, and provide vital support. The primary goals are to rescue the animal, optimize systemic perfusion and renal hemodynamics, and restore hydration without causing fluid overload. Isotonic crystalloids are the fluids typically administered first, but fluid therapy of the animal with kidney injury commonly must be individually adjusted to meet unpredictable and changing needs during the course of the treatment.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 40962641
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This comprehensive review outlines current, evidence-based fluid therapy practices for trauma management in dogs and cats. It explores the evolving understanding of trauma pathophysiology, the detrimental effects of inap...This comprehensive review outlines current, evidence-based fluid therapy practices for trauma management in dogs and cats. It explores the evolving understanding of trauma pathophysiology, the detrimental effects of inappropriate fluid use, and presents individualized strategies for managing hemorrhagic, obstructive, distributive, cardiogenic, and neurogenic shock. The review emphasizes dynamic resuscitation, minimizing coagulopathy, judicious fluid selection, and the integration of vasopressors and blood products, adapting protocols to specific patient needs and injuries.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 40962640
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Albumin has several key roles in the body, and hypoalbuminemia interferes with homeostasis in many organs. This article reviews the synthesis and structure of albumin, metabolism, primary functions, and causes and compli...Albumin has several key roles in the body, and hypoalbuminemia interferes with homeostasis in many organs. This article reviews the synthesis and structure of albumin, metabolism, primary functions, and causes and complications of hypoalbuminemia. Diagnostic and therapeutic strategies in patients with hypoalbuminemia should focus on identifying and treating the underlying cause while supporting normal tissue perfusion. Fluid therapy for patients with clinical manifestations of low-serum albumin requires an understanding of the risks and benefits of crystalloids and colloid solutions available.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 40957772
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The kidneys play a vital role in maintaining normal blood volume, acid-base, and electrolyte balance. Urine is easy to collect via free catch, catheterization, or cystocentesis and provides a window into renal handling o...The kidneys play a vital role in maintaining normal blood volume, acid-base, and electrolyte balance. Urine is easy to collect via free catch, catheterization, or cystocentesis and provides a window into renal handling of electrolytes and water. Rather than comparing urine electrolyte measurements to a list of reference ranges, urine biochemistry is best interpreted by evaluation of an individual's renal response to a specific abnormality and determination of whether or not that response is appropriate. In this way, urine biochemistry may provide valuable insight into the underlying pathophysiology and renal response to a variety of electrolyte disorders.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2026 Jan · PMID 40947350
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Blood gas analysis is prone to error due to physiologic changes that can occur in blood samples after collection, the volatile nature of gases, technology used in sample analysis and the potential for small changes to co...Blood gas analysis is prone to error due to physiologic changes that can occur in blood samples after collection, the volatile nature of gases, technology used in sample analysis and the potential for small changes to correlate to significant clinical differences. Common causes of erroneous results can be due to the manner of sample collection, inappropriate anticoagulation, sample storage options, delays in sample analysis, and measurement errors. Ionized calcium and ionized magnesium are directly chelated by heparin and are particularly sensitive to excessive anticoagulation with either liquid or dry heparin.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40915942
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Liver biopsies are widely used in veterinary and human medicine. Patients will directly benefit from a strong communication chain between clinicians and pathologists. Different sample types offer benefits and caveats tha...Liver biopsies are widely used in veterinary and human medicine. Patients will directly benefit from a strong communication chain between clinicians and pathologists. Different sample types offer benefits and caveats that should be considered when sampling is pursued. This article takes aim at liver biopsies from the point-of-view of a practicing veterinary anatomic pathologist with an interest in liver disease. Sampling strategies, common artifacts, the structure of pathology reports, histochemical stains, and immunohistochemistry markers are discussed, and commonly encountered challenges are highlighted.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40912983
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Immune-mediated chronic hepatitis is a common cause of chronic hepatitis in dogs. The clinical presentation, laboratory work, and imaging results are variable and not specific. Many dogs are subclinical in the early stag...Immune-mediated chronic hepatitis is a common cause of chronic hepatitis in dogs. The clinical presentation, laboratory work, and imaging results are variable and not specific. Many dogs are subclinical in the early stages of disease. The diagnosis relies on exclusion of other etiologies including copper, medications/toxins, infection, and neoplasia as well as recognition of histopathologic features, namely interface hepatitis. Treatment is centered on immunosuppression with agents such as cyclosporine, mycophenolate, or corticosteroids with consideration to the adverse effects of each. Prognosis is generally good to excellent, but treatment in the earlier stages of the disease is preferred to optimize outcomes.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40883158
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Integrative veterinary oncology combines complementary and alternative therapies with conventional cancer treatments to support the patient and provide improved quality of life. Complementary and alternative therapies mo...Integrative veterinary oncology combines complementary and alternative therapies with conventional cancer treatments to support the patient and provide improved quality of life. Complementary and alternative therapies modalities, including homeopathy, acupuncture, sound therapy, energy and biofield therapy, manipulative therapies, and oxygen therapies will be discussed in terms of how these therapies can benefit veterinary patients with cancer.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40883157
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Essential oils (EOs) have served a key role in the evolution of the animal and plant kingdoms. Many of the chemical components that make EOs so powerful have been identified, facilitating a deeper understanding of how na...Essential oils (EOs) have served a key role in the evolution of the animal and plant kingdoms. Many of the chemical components that make EOs so powerful have been identified, facilitating a deeper understanding of how nature's vast array of fragrances may provide medical benefits. EOs affect animals on a physical and emotional level, through the interaction with the neuroendocrine, circulatory, and other body systems. In the clinical veterinary setting, EOs may be incorporated as primary or adjunctive therapy. With adherence to safe use guidelines, EOs may be used in companion animals with a low risk of adverse events.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40858470
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Integrative veterinary oncology combines complementary and alternative therapies with conventional cancer treatments to support the patient and provide improved quality of life. Complementary and alternative therapies mo...Integrative veterinary oncology combines complementary and alternative therapies with conventional cancer treatments to support the patient and provide improved quality of life. Complementary and alternative therapies modalities, including nutrition, herbs, essential oils, and supplements will be discussed for the benefit of the patient with veterinary cancer.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40858469
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Since ancient times, alternative methods of practicing medicine with people and animals have continually evolved and often have been combined with more conventional practice. However, support for such complementary adjun...Since ancient times, alternative methods of practicing medicine with people and animals have continually evolved and often have been combined with more conventional practice. However, support for such complementary adjunctive practices over these many years has waxed and waned and remains controversial even today. This review summarizes the history and status of what is now termed "integrative medicine" as applied to companion animals and livestock.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40781017
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Hospice and Palliative care is focused on improving and maintaining quality of life for both the pet and their family. This goal is often accomplished by using conventional pharmaceuticals, which can be very effective bu...Hospice and Palliative care is focused on improving and maintaining quality of life for both the pet and their family. This goal is often accomplished by using conventional pharmaceuticals, which can be very effective but may also have side effects or concerns about use in specific patients. Hospice and palliative care may be greatly enhanced by the use of integrative options such as acupuncture, herbal medicine, and essential oils, as well as physical modalities (chiropractic medicine, physical rehabilitation, massage, etc) in proving relief from the common conditions seen in the hospice and palliative care population.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40781016
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Veterinary medical ozone therapy, a key component of integrative veterinary medicine, leverages advanced oxygenation techniques and natural immune-modulating effects to treat a broad range of clinical conditions in small...Veterinary medical ozone therapy, a key component of integrative veterinary medicine, leverages advanced oxygenation techniques and natural immune-modulating effects to treat a broad range of clinical conditions in small, large and exotic animals. This article explores the mechanisms of action, clinical applications, safety considerations, and integration of medical ozone therapy with conventional and complementary treatments, providing veterinary professionals with a practical and comprehensive resource. With the growing challenge of antimicrobial resistance posing significant public health concerns, the role of medical ozone therapy has become increasingly vital.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40695663
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Nutraceuticals are inexpensive, low-cost additions to conventional treatments for chronic disease. A large number of owners who use integrative veterinary medicine for their pets include nutraceuticals for their pets. Re...Nutraceuticals are inexpensive, low-cost additions to conventional treatments for chronic disease. A large number of owners who use integrative veterinary medicine for their pets include nutraceuticals for their pets. Research is not robust, often in vitro, and clinical trials are usually based on humans. Even so, the information is useful. As a general rule, use natural forms, and it is often best to use them in the same combinations found in nature. Use strong antioxidants in groups, not singly. To use research as a guide, be sure the dose is reasonable and given for a reasonable amount of time.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40695662
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Properly applied animal chiropractic (AC) can be safe and effective. Only licensed health care professionals who have completed extensive postgraduate training should offer AC. By providing AC, veterinarians can help the...Properly applied animal chiropractic (AC) can be safe and effective. Only licensed health care professionals who have completed extensive postgraduate training should offer AC. By providing AC, veterinarians can help their patients achieve the highest level of function, independence, and quality of life possible. In this article, we have described AC as a valuable modality that, by improving afferent input and positive modulation of the ventral horn cells and their efferent motor neurons, can positively affect patient strength, stability, and mobility. Therefore, improved conditioning, performance, and postoperative recoveries can enhance patient outcomes by including AC in veterinary practice.