Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40695661
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The principles of veterinary botanical medicine emphasize addressing the root causes of illness, supporting physiologic processes, and utilizing whole herbs rather than isolated constituents for a holistic approach. Herb...The principles of veterinary botanical medicine emphasize addressing the root causes of illness, supporting physiologic processes, and utilizing whole herbs rather than isolated constituents for a holistic approach. Herb-drug interactions are a key consideration, as they can either enhance therapeutic outcomes or alter drug efficacy and safety. Backed by a growing evidence base, veterinary botanical medicine demonstrates the multi-targeted and rational use of botanicals to support a wide range of conditions in small animals.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40695660
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Homeopathy is a system of medicine based on the principle of "Let likes be cured by likes", with determination of the appropriate medicine based on the patient's unique presentation rather than a diagnostic name. The act...Homeopathy is a system of medicine based on the principle of "Let likes be cured by likes", with determination of the appropriate medicine based on the patient's unique presentation rather than a diagnostic name. The actions of the medicines are elucidated by testing (provings). The medicines are prepared in by the process of "potentization," resulting in low doses, often containing only nanoparticles, which elicit profound effects in patients. Both acute and chronic diseases can be cured with homeopathy.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40695659
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Rooted in over 4000 years of empirical knowledge and systematic documentation, Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) has evolved into a sophisticated therapeutic modality for managing various medical conditions. This article exp...Rooted in over 4000 years of empirical knowledge and systematic documentation, Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) has evolved into a sophisticated therapeutic modality for managing various medical conditions. This article explores the clinical application of CHM in small animal practice, emphasizing its unique diagnostic framework of pattern diagnosis. Key examples of CHM's clinical applications are discussed, including treatments for hemorrhage, neoplasia, intervertebral disc disease, idiopathic epilepsy, pain, behavioral disorders, inflammatory bowel disease, cough, chronic kidney disease, urinary tract infections, and hyperadrenocorticism. The history, scientific validation, and general dosage and usage of CHM are also discussed.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40675827
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Veterinary acupuncture, a fundamental aspect of Traditional Chinese Medicine, has complemented conventional veterinary medical practices. Acupuncture has been adapted to treat various animal health conditions based on an...Veterinary acupuncture, a fundamental aspect of Traditional Chinese Medicine, has complemented conventional veterinary medical practices. Acupuncture has been adapted to treat various animal health conditions based on ancient principles such as Qi, meridians, and balance. Acupuncture's diverse applications benefit pets, livestock, and even exotic animals. The wide versatility of acupuncture makes it an essential component of integrative animal health care. Acupuncture involves stimulating specific points on the body using needles, lasers, or electrical currents to promote healing and restore balance. Scientific studies highlight its physiologic effects, including pain modulation, inflammation reduction, circulation improvement, and nerve regeneration enhancement.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40675826
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Ayurveda is one of the oldest medicinal systems still in use in the world. To utilize this medicinal system effectively, it is imperative to understand the theory and the philosophy of Ayurveda. This overview will go thr...Ayurveda is one of the oldest medicinal systems still in use in the world. To utilize this medicinal system effectively, it is imperative to understand the theory and the philosophy of Ayurveda. This overview will go through the basics, including the philosophy, the elements, the principles for living, the constitutional types (called doshas-vata, pitta, and kapha), the tissues, and the qualities. The discussion will culminate with an understanding of digestion as it influences overall well-being and the applications of the 2 primary treatment modalities, which are food (diet) and herbal medicine.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40675825
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Cannabis and Veterinary Medicine explores the growing role of cannabis in veterinary medicine, highlighting its therapeutic potential and challenges. It discusses the complexities of the endocannabinoid system and its re...Cannabis and Veterinary Medicine explores the growing role of cannabis in veterinary medicine, highlighting its therapeutic potential and challenges. It discusses the complexities of the endocannabinoid system and its regulation of physiologic processes. Emphasis is placed on cannabinoids like delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, and minor cannabinoids, alongside terpenes and flavonoids. In addition, the article addresses legal issues, clinical applications, safety, dosing strategies, and the significance of product quality.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40675824
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Commercial data show that use of raw and fresh-cooked foods is on the rise. Raw diets have been around since the 1990s, and cooked frozen foods were first introduced around 2010. Part of the support put forward by veteri...Commercial data show that use of raw and fresh-cooked foods is on the rise. Raw diets have been around since the 1990s, and cooked frozen foods were first introduced around 2010. Part of the support put forward by veterinarians to discourage use of these foods is the lack of supporting evidence. However, there are clear biochemical differences between minimally processed and ultraprocessed foods such as extruded kibble and canned diets. And indeed, there is evidence to suggest that feeding fresh diets leads to different physiologic responses. It is incumbent on veterinarians to improve their conversations with interested pet owners.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Nov · PMID 40675823
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While the pet food industry has been in a constant state of evolution since processed pet food became available commercially, the last 20 years have seen a sea change. This shift might be described as the minimally proce...While the pet food industry has been in a constant state of evolution since processed pet food became available commercially, the last 20 years have seen a sea change. This shift might be described as the minimally processed food uprising, and the industry has responded with enthusiasm. Veterinarians are accustomed to hearing that there is no evidence to support feeding raw, but this is no longer true. This review will cover the potentially detrimental changes wrought by cooking, the biochemical basis for the putative benefits of raw, and finally, the studies comparing raw versus processed foods in dogs and cats.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Sep · PMID 40494672
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Orphaned kittens represent a highly vulnerable population requiring specialized attention and immediate care. Orphaned kittens encounter numerous challenges, including nutritional deficiencies, susceptibility to infectio...Orphaned kittens represent a highly vulnerable population requiring specialized attention and immediate care. Orphaned kittens encounter numerous challenges, including nutritional deficiencies, susceptibility to infectious diseases, and deficits in social skills, all of which increase their risk of developmental complications and mortality. Addressing these challenges requires the implementation of effective care strategies, which should encompass clinical stabilization, monitoring of body weight, and nutritional provision via foster mother adoption or hand-rearing. A comprehensive approach is crucial for mitigating the detrimental effects associated with maternal absence, thereby reducing mortality rates, and facilitating a successful transition into adulthood for orphaned kittens.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40379581
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Hepatobiliary disease in dogs and cats can lead to various complications. Vomiting is a common clinical sign in liver disease, and antiemetic therapy should be considered on a case-by-case basis. Ascites is managed by fe...Hepatobiliary disease in dogs and cats can lead to various complications. Vomiting is a common clinical sign in liver disease, and antiemetic therapy should be considered on a case-by-case basis. Ascites is managed by feeding a moderate sodium diet, therapy with spironolactone, and judicious use of furosemide. Hepatic encephalopathy is managed by feeding an appropriate diet and treating with lactulose and possibly an antimicrobial. Because coagulant and anticoagulant factors are affected in patients with hepatic dysfunction, they may be in an altered but balanced hemostatic state. This balance is fragile and bleeding or thrombosis can occur if it is disrupted.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40379580
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Dogs and cats with liver disease often benefit from nutritional modifications. The most important consideration for patients with severe disease is often providing sufficient energy intake to prevent a catabolic state. A...Dogs and cats with liver disease often benefit from nutritional modifications. The most important consideration for patients with severe disease is often providing sufficient energy intake to prevent a catabolic state. Additionally, targeted nutritional modifications address specific clinical signs and liver disease pathogenesis. For instance, patients with hepatic encephalopathy often benefit from a diet with a reduced amount of protein, or a vegetarian diet as these modifications can help reduce the severity and frequency of clinical signs. This article aims to guide the clinician in understanding the indications and considerations for nutritional intervention in patients with hepatobiliary disease.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40368649
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The spectrum of congenital intrahepatic diseases described in canine and feline patients is broad, and the etiopathogenesis is complex. Developmental dysregulation of the intrahepatic biliary tree and vasculature leads t...The spectrum of congenital intrahepatic diseases described in canine and feline patients is broad, and the etiopathogenesis is complex. Developmental dysregulation of the intrahepatic biliary tree and vasculature leads to malformations of the ductal plate and aberrant vascular connections. Occasionally, intrahepatic congenital disorders occur as a constellation of biliary and vascular anomalies. Diagnosis requires clinical data, advanced diagnostic imaging, and, in the case of hepatic fibropolycystic disease, liver histopathology. Clinical prognosis is variable.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40360340
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Aminoaciduric canine hypoaminoacidemic hepatopathy syndrome is a multifaceted clinical condition that remains insufficiently understood, with its pathophysiology not yet fully delineated. Current evidence suggests a link...Aminoaciduric canine hypoaminoacidemic hepatopathy syndrome is a multifaceted clinical condition that remains insufficiently understood, with its pathophysiology not yet fully delineated. Current evidence suggests a link between hypoaminoacidemia and the development of superficial necrolytic dermatitis and hepatocutaneous lesions (hypoaminoacidemia/hepatocutaneous-associated canine hepatopathy), although the underlying mechanisms driving these associations are not clearly defined. The presence of aminoaciduria, along with impaired amino acid transporter function in critical organs such as the skin, liver, and intestines, may play a significant role in the progression of this syndrome. Additionally, elevated glucagon levels may further contribute to the exacerbation of hypoaminoacidemia, worsening clinical signs.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40360339
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Liver fine needle aspiration (FNA) and bile cytology are valuable diagnostic tools for evaluating various hepatobiliary diseases in veterinary medicine. Although FNA of the liver is less invasive and faster than histopat...Liver fine needle aspiration (FNA) and bile cytology are valuable diagnostic tools for evaluating various hepatobiliary diseases in veterinary medicine. Although FNA of the liver is less invasive and faster than histopathology, it may not always provide a definitive diagnosis, but will often provide information regarding pathologic processes occurring in the liver. Cytologic evaluation is most effective when integrated with clinical information including bloodwork, imaging, and results of other diagnostic tests.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40360338
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Bacterial biliary tract infections are increasingly recognized in dogs and should be considered in any dog presenting with vomiting, anorexia, and jaundice, particularly if they have abdominal discomfort or pyrexia. Comm...Bacterial biliary tract infections are increasingly recognized in dogs and should be considered in any dog presenting with vomiting, anorexia, and jaundice, particularly if they have abdominal discomfort or pyrexia. Commonly recognized clinicopathologic findings include increased liver enzyme activities, hyperbilirubinemia, and an inflammatory leucogram. Hepatobiliary ultrasound forms a key component of the diagnostic approach to these cases, aiding the identification of dogs that require urgent surgical management due to biliary tract rupture, or that have another surgical condition. Ultrasound also allows guided percutaneous bile sampling to gain a sample for cytology and culture, guiding rational antimicrobial therapy.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40360337
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In 2018, a surprising finding was reported; cats are naturally infected with a virus related to hepatitis B virus (HBV), domestic cat hepadnavirus (DCH). HBV causes chronic hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma in peopl...In 2018, a surprising finding was reported; cats are naturally infected with a virus related to hepatitis B virus (HBV), domestic cat hepadnavirus (DCH). HBV causes chronic hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma in people, and HBV-like viruses cause similar diseases in rodents. If DCH negatively impacts feline health then demand for diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccination will follow. Hence, understanding pathogenic potential of DCH for cats, and the size of any associated disease burden are critical goals. Here we evaluate progress made towards these goals by reviewing published studies of DCH against the backdrop of our understanding of HBV and HBV-like viruses.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40360336
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Granulomatous hepatitis (GH) is a subset of chronic hepatitis in which the predominant inflammatory infiltrate consists of macrophages. It can be associated with systemic granulomatous disease or confined to the liver. W...Granulomatous hepatitis (GH) is a subset of chronic hepatitis in which the predominant inflammatory infiltrate consists of macrophages. It can be associated with systemic granulomatous disease or confined to the liver. When associated with systemic disease, infectious causes (bacterial, fungal, protozoal, or metazoan) are more common, while disease confined to the liver is often idiopathic. Dogs with idiopathic GH most often present acutely ill, with fever, high white blood cell counts, and with ultrasound finding of a large liver often with nodules and characteristic hyperechoic parenchymal bands.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 Jul · PMID 40318994
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Gallbladder mucocele (GBM) formation was rarely reported prior to 20 years ago and has emerged as one of the most common, deadly, and poorly understood causes of gallbladder disease in dogs. Multiple and large retrospect...Gallbladder mucocele (GBM) formation was rarely reported prior to 20 years ago and has emerged as one of the most common, deadly, and poorly understood causes of gallbladder disease in dogs. Multiple and large retrospective studies inform many aspects of diagnosis, concurrent diseases, surgical treatment, complications, and prognosis of patients with GBM. Studies of pathogenesis are fewer but are beginning to disclose underlying mechanisms for GBM formation.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract
· 2025 May · PMID 40316375
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The use of extracorporeal blood purification has become an important therapeutic tool in tertiary hospitals due to the spectrum of clinical applications that go beyond the need for renal replacement therapy. In the emerg...The use of extracorporeal blood purification has become an important therapeutic tool in tertiary hospitals due to the spectrum of clinical applications that go beyond the need for renal replacement therapy. In the emergency room, extracorporeal therapies can be used for the treatment of acute intoxications to remove the circulating toxins before they cause clinical signs or organ failure. In the intensive care unit, extracorporeal therapies are being used more frequently to manage immune-mediated disease that fails conventional treatment with immunosuppressive therapy.