Biobanks represent a valuable resource in many areas of biomedical research and development. They function as repositories for well-documented and well-characterised biological material that can be used as the basis for...Biobanks represent a valuable resource in many areas of biomedical research and development. They function as repositories for well-documented and well-characterised biological material that can be used as the basis for this work. Virtual biobanks amplify the availability of this resource by linking multiple biobanks via a single interface. Test development and validation is an essential process that helps to provide confidence in diagnostic test results and, by extension, the disease and health status of animal populations demonstrated by such results. The quality of the development and validation pathway can be enhanced by the use of well-characterised material for standards and validation panels. Virtual biobanks represent a powerful mechanism for enhancing access to such material, and allow other parties to both have greater confidence in the work done, and to be able to repeat it themselves, as required.
Before tools became available to consider diagnostic test validation studies where a 'gold-standard' is not available, new diagnostic tests were compared to a reference standard assumed to be highly accurate if not perfe...Before tools became available to consider diagnostic test validation studies where a 'gold-standard' is not available, new diagnostic tests were compared to a reference standard assumed to be highly accurate if not perfect. This paper reviews such 'traditional' situations with examples and methods of study design and analysis. Three situations are described, two where a perfect reference is available for either positive or negative animals, and one where the reference is perfect for both. Thus, here the authors review circumstances to be considered when validating a diagnostic test with a credible reference standard. An appropriate study design requires an unbiased selection of animals from the population to which a new test will be applied. Examples for calculating sample size and data analysis are provided. Finally, the authors discuss situations where it may be appropriate to include influential variables ('covariates') in a diagnostic test validation study..
Latent class analysis (LCA) has allowed epidemiologists to overcome the practical constraints faced by traditional diagnostic test evaluation methods, which require both a gold standard diagnostic test and ample numbers...Latent class analysis (LCA) has allowed epidemiologists to overcome the practical constraints faced by traditional diagnostic test evaluation methods, which require both a gold standard diagnostic test and ample numbers of appropriate reference samples. Over the past four decades, LCA methods have expanded to allow epidemiologists to evaluate diagnostic tests and estimate true prevalence using imperfect tests over a variety of complex data structures and scenarios, including during the emergence of novel infectious diseases. The objective of this review is to provide an overview of recent developments in LCA methods, as well as a practical guide to applying Bayesian LCA (BLCA) to the evaluation of diagnostic tests. Before conducting a BLCA, the suitability of BLCA for the pathogen of interest, the availability of appropriate samples, the number of diagnostic tests, and the structure of the data should be carefully considered. While formulating the model, the model's structure and specification of informative priors will affect the likelihood that useful inferences can be drawn. With the growing need for advanced analytical methods to evaluate diagnostic tests for newly emerging diseases, LCA is a promising field of research for both the veterinary and medical disciplines.
To select, interpret, and assess the fitness-for-purpose of diagnostic tests, we need to compare the likelihoods of test results being true vs. false across both infected and non-infected individuals. Diagnostic sensitiv...To select, interpret, and assess the fitness-for-purpose of diagnostic tests, we need to compare the likelihoods of test results being true vs. false across both infected and non-infected individuals. Diagnostic sensitivity (DSe) and specificity (DSp) report the accuracy of classification in infected and non-infected individuals separately and do not compare these likelihoods directly. Positive and negative predictive values combine these likelihoods, but they also heavily depend on the prevalence in the tested populations and, therefore, cannot be generalised. We propose the adoption of the diagnostic likelihood ratio (LR), which balances the likelihoods of true vs. false results and is population independent. As a relative measure, LR ignores the absolute accuracy of tests, and two tests with different accuracy profiles may have the same LR. This can be easily mitigated by using listed complementary measures of accuracy, including DSe and DSp, or ancillary selection criteria. Overall, LR is a more relevant and universal measure of diagnostic test accuracy, which makes it the logical next-generation measure to adopt. We illustrate the applications and benefits of LR using three assays certified by the World Organisation for Animal Health as serological tests for bovine tuberculosis.
With human population growth, rapid urbanisation, increasing globalisation, and climate change, the interdependency of human health and animal health is mounting. Therefore, the importance of national emergency managemen...With human population growth, rapid urbanisation, increasing globalisation, and climate change, the interdependency of human health and animal health is mounting. Therefore, the importance of national emergency management plans (NEMPs) for the mitigation of, and preparedness for, all hazards, including disease epidemics, both zoonotic and zootic, is ever increasing. The authors decided to take a One Health approach by assessing the inclusion of Veterinary Services and animal health in NEMPs, based on geographical region, the date of the NEMP, national income status, and the proportion of the agricultural sector in national gross domestic product (GDP). To carry out the assessment, the authors analysed the publicly available NEMPs of 86 Members of the World Organisation for Animal Health. Of the 86 NEMPs reviewed, only a third expressly mentioned Veterinary Services, almost 60% mentioned zoonotic and/or zootic diseases, and about two-thirds mentioned animals to some extent. The highest correlating factor to the inclusion of animal health in NEMPs was the level of the agricultural sector's contributions to the national GDP. Fisheries and aquaculture were not a major consideration in any of the reviewed NEMPs, especially not in relation to diseases. Based on region, Latin America and the Caribbean exhibited the lowest inclusion rate of animal health in NEMPs. The results demonstrate that the omission of animal health is still a problem. A multi-disciplinary approach that includes veterinary medicine as well as human medicine is vital in the construction and/or revision of NEMPs. Future studies should consider whether or not there is a connection between countries' veterinary capacities and the inclusion of Veterinary Services in their NEMPs and whether or not they have the infrastructure and human resources to put into operation the roles of Veterinary Services as identified in their NEMPs.
Preparedness for an animal emergency event reduces a country's economic and production losses and decreases animal disease threats to neighbouring countries. Investing in animal disease preparedness reduces economic expe...Preparedness for an animal emergency event reduces a country's economic and production losses and decreases animal disease threats to neighbouring countries. Investing in animal disease preparedness reduces economic expenditures during an emergency as well as in recovery. An essential component of animal disease preparedness is a national contingency plan that is fit for purpose. This useful document should be frequently updated and can be modified with new information from self-assessments and after-action reports, which should identify resource needs and improvements to be made. National contingency plans are recommended in global international guidance and by animal health and veterinary organisations. Despite this, some countries lack national contingency plans that are fit for purpose, or the resources to implement them. This review concentrates on trends in national contingency planning around the world. In 2018 and 2019, the authors surveyed existing global animal disease contingency plans. Of the 181 Members of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), 163 were reported to have some form of national contingency plan. (Over the course of the review from 2018 to 2019, the 182nd Member joined the OIE. This review examines only the 181 that were Members when the survey began.) The authors review current global animal emergency preparedness and discuss the gaps that have been identified. They discuss global trends, examining developing concepts and novel approaches that may aid improvements in global national contingency planning and enhance the global capacity to prepare for animal disease where gaps exist.
Contingency plans are a key tool to prevent and respond to events of different origins and nature that may affect animal health, animal welfare and veterinary public health needs. They should include a number of elements...Contingency plans are a key tool to prevent and respond to events of different origins and nature that may affect animal health, animal welfare and veterinary public health needs. They should include a number of elements ranging from assessment and notification systems, financial arrangements and the role of national authorities. To help to ensure their effective and rapid implementation and prevent gaps, they should be based on a clear legal framework; this 'enabling legislation' will provide for basic requirements and the overall content of the plans. This paper first examines the basis of an effective and comprehensive legal framework for national contingency planning and response and considers the formal and substantive contents of such a framework. It then looks at different steps that can be taken to evaluate and strengthen existing national legislation. Finally, it describes the assistance role of the World Organisation for Animal Health in reviewing and developing national legislation.
This paper outlines the role of laboratories in animal-health-related disasters and emergencies, with a particular focus on biological threats - intentional, accidental and natural. Whilst multisectoral coordination is i...This paper outlines the role of laboratories in animal-health-related disasters and emergencies, with a particular focus on biological threats - intentional, accidental and natural. Whilst multisectoral coordination is increasingly recognised as necessary for effective preparedness and response to all kinds of disasters, the role of the laboratory is often overlooked. The laboratories' involvement, not just in the response, but across all phases of disaster management - mitigation, planning, response and recovery - is essential, not only for improved animal health but for preservation of livelihoods and for food security, social cohesion and economic stability.
Emergency operations centres take many forms. In the context of an animal disease emergency, they may be established by a country's Veterinary Services to coordinate all aspects of the response. The systems and processes...Emergency operations centres take many forms. In the context of an animal disease emergency, they may be established by a country's Veterinary Services to coordinate all aspects of the response. The systems and processes applied within emergency operations centres are based on established incident management systems, adopting consistent approaches for the operation and management of response activities.
In 2018, Cape Town, South Africa, nearly ran out of water. That this has not yet happened is in large part due to the water-saving efforts of its citizens. It is highly likely that this situation will be repeated in Cape...In 2018, Cape Town, South Africa, nearly ran out of water. That this has not yet happened is in large part due to the water-saving efforts of its citizens. It is highly likely that this situation will be repeated in Cape Town and that similar situations will be experienced by major cities in other parts of the world. Efforts to save water should thus continue and the lessons learned in Cape Town should be shared. The functioning of Veterinary Services during a drought is affected in the same way as any business, in terms of running an office, but veterinary professionals face an increased risk of exposure to pathogens, compared to that of many occupations, and of veterinary officials becoming disease vectors. One component of Veterinary Services is veterinary laboratory services. Laboratory procedures rely heavily on water and, without advance planning, a laboratory's function can be severely limited by a restricted water supply. In many cases, innovative water-saving techniques can be used to reduce water use substantially without compromising the quality of the services offered. Here, the authors share their experiences and some lessons learned while working in Veterinary Services in the Western Cape province of South Africa.
This case study outlines the actions of Cuba's Veterinary Service, as part of the country's disaster risk reduction and management system, in response to Hurricane Irma. The phenomenon affected ten of Cuba's 15 provinces...This case study outlines the actions of Cuba's Veterinary Service, as part of the country's disaster risk reduction and management system, in response to Hurricane Irma. The phenomenon affected ten of Cuba's 15 provinces and caused significant damage in 53 of its municipalities (29.6%). During the response effort, the pre-established measures for the various phases (warning, alert and emergency) were deployed according to the disaster reduction plans for each level. In all provinces, animals were protected by moving them to safer locations, allowing for pre-established sanitary measures and technical assistance. Nonetheless, damage was incurred, mainly to the roofs of some animal housing. The following deaths were recorded: 210,150 poultry, 2,752 cattle (of which 73.8% were calves) and 866 pigs (of which 68% were young animals). In addition, 7% of the inventory of hives was damaged and 3.3% of hives were lost. Damage to infrastructure included: 466 poultry houses, 1,422 cattle houses, 431 pig houses, 1,200 wind pumps and 13 of the country's 17 feed concentrate plants. As no major damage was reported to the Veterinary Service's facilities (laboratories and offices), its viability was guaranteed at all times. Rapid damage assessment enabled priorities for rehabilitation and recovery actions to be set, with the result that, just three months after the hurricane had struck, 67% of the poultry houses and 33% of the pig houses had been restored. This article focuses on preparedness, response and lessons learned.
Complex emergencies, also known as major humanitarian emergencies, differ from emergencies related to natural disasters or major disease outbreaks, in that they are essentially political in nature and will, in most cases...Complex emergencies, also known as major humanitarian emergencies, differ from emergencies related to natural disasters or major disease outbreaks, in that they are essentially political in nature and will, in most cases, erode the cultural, civil, political and economic stability of societies. They can be exacerbated by natural disasters and eventually require external interventions. National Veterinary Services are usually weakened or partially or totally disrupted. Interventions to support livestock-dependent communities should build on local capacity. Multisector, integrated disaster management plans should be in place and should include not only preparedness and response, but also mitigation, prevention and recovery strategies. National Veterinary Services and their partners should work in close collaboration and are encouraged to look beyond animal-health-related interventions, also addressing access to feed and water, and keeping marketing chains for livestock open. This paper also touches on the specific needs of displaced people, host communities, and pastoralists, as well as addressing disease eradication programmes in the context of complex emergencies.
Technological disasters present a unique set of requirements for national Veterinary Services, encompassing complex issues of risk to human health, animal health and the environment. Cooperation among agencies and Minist...Technological disasters present a unique set of requirements for national Veterinary Services, encompassing complex issues of risk to human health, animal health and the environment. Cooperation among agencies and Ministries that do not routinely coordinate with one another during transboundary animal disease incidents or natural disaster responses may be required in technological disasters. Effective preparedness and response requires additional planning, training, exercises, and equipping to safely and efficiently provide the necessary services in a technological disaster.
Armed conflict significantly impacts livestock production, animal health, public health, and the delivery of Veterinary Services by limiting resources, eroding border control, disrupting land use, impairing disease surve...Armed conflict significantly impacts livestock production, animal health, public health, and the delivery of Veterinary Services by limiting resources, eroding border control, disrupting land use, impairing disease surveillance, and reducing food safety and quality. Those seeking to build capacity in animal health in areas of conflict should focus on strengthening resilience in animal production systems and animal health infrastructure to minimise the devastating effects of conflict. Methods for reconstructing Veterinary Service systems should be tailored to each country's specific needs. These can be determined through participatory assessment, with a focus on building sustainable relationships among all stakeholders. Although it is tempting for animal health professionals to focus primarily on improving animal health on individual farms or targeting specific diseases, attention should be centred on entire systems and on developing sustainable agricultural improvements that will enhance livelihoods on a national scale. Aiding economic growth can also help to lower the probability of future conflict.
In recent times, there has been an increased focus on animal health and zoonotic diseases that have the potential to trigger epidemics or pandemics that disproportionately affect the poor and most vulnerable. The recent...In recent times, there has been an increased focus on animal health and zoonotic diseases that have the potential to trigger epidemics or pandemics that disproportionately affect the poor and most vulnerable. The recent Ebola, Zika and COVID-19 outbreaks demonstrate the devastating human, social and economic impacts of such diseases if they are not prevented or controlled, ideally at source. The risk drivers for zoonoses, which are complex and often interdependent, include climate change and related disasters, antimicrobial resistance, and anthropogenic drivers such as land-use changes and animal production practices. Understanding these drivers requires a better understanding of the ecology of zoonotic diseases at the human-animal-environment interface. Biosecurity and biosafety are critical for reducing the risk of accidental or deliberate release and should be included in risk management strategies. International frameworks for sustainable development, climate change, and disaster risk reduction have all integrated health as one of the core areas of work, calling for better preparedness and response to biological hazards and increased health system resilience. To improve their ability to prevent, prepare for, and respond to emerging and re-emerging threats, countries should address these risk drivers, taking a multidisciplinary One Health approach that involves the animal and human health and environment sectors. Cross-border cooperation is also vital, as diseases know no boundaries.
Enteric pathogens, such as non-typhoidal Salmonella, Campylobacter and Escherichia coli, can reside in the intestinal tract of many animals, including livestock, companion animals, small mammals and reptiles. Often, thes...Enteric pathogens, such as non-typhoidal Salmonella, Campylobacter and Escherichia coli, can reside in the intestinal tract of many animals, including livestock, companion animals, small mammals and reptiles. Often, these animals can appear healthy; nonetheless, humans can become infected after direct or indirect contact, resulting in a substantial illness burden. An estimated 14% of the 3.2 million illnesses that occur in the United States of America (USA) each year from such enteric pathogens are attributable to animal contact. Surveillance for enteric pathogens in the USA includes the compilation and interpretation of both laboratory and epidemiologic data. However, the authors feel that a collaborative, multisectoral and transdisciplinary - or One Health - approach is needed for data collection and analysis, at every level. In addition, they suggest that the future of enteric illness surveillance lies in the development of improved technologies for pathogen detection and characterisation, such as genomic sequencing and metagenomics. In particular, using whole-genome sequencing to compare genetic sequences of enteric pathogens from humans, food, animals and the environment, can help to predict antimicrobial resistance among these pathogens, determine their genetic relatedness and identify outbreaks linked to a common source. In this paper, the authors describe three recent, multi-state human enteric illness outbreaks linked to animal contact in the USA and discuss how integrated disease surveillance was essential to outbreak detection and response. Additional datasharing between public health and animal health laboratories and epidemiologists at the local, national, regional and international level may help to improve surveillance for emerging animal and human health threats and lead to new opportunities for prevention.
Climate change is predicted to change the nature and distribution of global farming systems, and strategies will be needed to adapt and optimise global food-producing systems. If genomic technologies are to be useful in...Climate change is predicted to change the nature and distribution of global farming systems, and strategies will be needed to adapt and optimise global food-producing systems. If genomic technologies are to be useful in this scenario, there is a need for the careful definition of phenotypes and routine sample collection, as well as large-scale genotyping of animal populations. Genomic tools will greatly enhance the characterisation of available germplasm and exploration of local genetic resources, while faster and cheaper DNA sequencing is leading to an increased understanding of the underlying genetic basis of traits. The use of genomic tools to increase animal resilience, reduce methane emissions from cattle and sheep, improve disease resistance, decrease environmental impact, reduce competition for land and water and, finally, increase production may be the most feasible path for the future of livestock production. In this review, the authors discuss various genomic strategies in the light of climate change, focusing on the selection of resistant/tolerant animals, landscape genomics, metagenomics and gene editing.