Frontiers Of Neurology And Neuroscience[JOURNAL]
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200 papers
The girls of La Salpêtrière.
Walusinski O
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 25273490 · Publisher ↗
It was only by chance that French hospital authorities assigned Jean-Martin Charcot to the care of hysterics and epileptics, starting in 1870, at La Salpêtrière Hospital. The famous clinical work that resulted has been t...
It was only by chance that French hospital authorities assigned Jean-Martin Charcot to the care of hysterics and epileptics, starting in 1870, at La Salpêtrière Hospital. The famous clinical work that resulted has been the subject of much discussion and, in many cases, misinterpretation. By referring to original sources, i.e., the medical observations written at the time by the department's staff, our aim is to bring the hospitalized patients to life. Many of these observations contain intimate details and reveal the painful experiences that led these young women to La Salpêtrière. To understand the gradual, 20-year evolution of Charcot's neurological thinking about hysteria, from organicity to psychology, in both clinical and therapeutic terms, it is more revealing to analyze all the physical and psychological miseries that make up this forgotten 'human material' than it is to examine the neurologist's famous lessons.
Hypnosis and the Nancy quarrel.
Piechowski-Jozwiak B, Bogousslavsky J
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 25273489 · Publisher ↗
The theme of hysteria and hypnotism has been attracting the attention of medics, psychologists, writers, and the broad lay public. The role of hypnotism in the context of societal functioning, especially in crime, was a...
The theme of hysteria and hypnotism has been attracting the attention of medics, psychologists, writers, and the broad lay public. The role of hypnotism in the context of societal functioning, especially in crime, was a subject of research and significant debates between different neurology and psychology schools. One of these debates was between the Nancy and Salpêtrière schools of neurology at the end of the 19th century, and it was focused around a few cases of crime committed allegedly under hypnosis. In order to understand this particular quarrel, this chapter examines the history of mesmerism, hysteria, hypnosis, and fin-de-siècle neurology represented by both the Nancy and Salpêtrière schools.
Jean-Martin Charcot and his legacy.
Bogousslavsky J
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 25273488 · Publisher ↗
Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) rightly is considered the father of both modern neurology and psychiatry in France and much beyond. While he never was interested in mental disease and what was called 'alienism' at the ti...
Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) rightly is considered the father of both modern neurology and psychiatry in France and much beyond. While he never was interested in mental disease and what was called 'alienism' at the time, his career at La Salpêtrière Hospital over 30 years was mainly marked by the development of a huge group of students which focused on the study and management of hysteria. When Charcot took office at the beginning of 1862, hysteria was a 'no-man's land', medically speaking, since neither the alienists nor the internists had much interest in this condition. At La Salpêtrière, these chronic patients were largely left to themselves before Désiré Bourneville, one of Charcot's first students, convinced his chief to care for them. Subsequently, the studies of Charcot with Paul Richer, Joseph Babinski, Georges Gilles de la Tourette, Paul Sollier, Pierre Janet, and many others allowed the condition to be addressed in detail. During his stay with Charcot in 1885-1866, Sigmund Freud, a young neuropathologist at the time, became fascinated by hysteria, an interest which probably was the main start of his interest in psychology. Charcot emphasized the concept of mental factors in hysteria, along with that of a 'dynamic' lesion, which accounted for the lack of neuropathological findings in the patients. While his ideas on hysteria and hypnotism were criticized after his death even by former pupils, such as Babinski, recent findings from functional studies using magnetic resonance imaging show how accurate and often visionary Charcot's thinking was in this field.
Clinical manifestations of hysteria: an epistemological perspective or how historical dynamics illuminate current practice.
Medeiros De Bustos E, Galli S, Haffen E … +1 more , Moulin T
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 25273487 · Publisher ↗
Hysteria has generated the most heated debates among physicians, from antiquity to the present day. It has been long confused with neuroses and neurological pathologies such as Parkinson's disease and epilepsy, principal...
Hysteria has generated the most heated debates among physicians, from antiquity to the present day. It has been long confused with neuroses and neurological pathologies such as Parkinson's disease and epilepsy, principally associated with women and sexual disorders. The clinical manifestations must first be seen in their historical context, as interpretation varies according to the time period. Recently, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders by the American Psychiatric Association marked a break in the consensus that previously seemed to apply to the concept of hysteria and approach to the clinical manifestations. The clinical manifestations of hysteria are numerous and multifaceted, comprising 3 main classifications: paroxysms, attacks, and acute manifestations; long-lasting functional syndromes, and visceral events. Each main classification can be subdivided into several subgroups. The first main group of paroxysms, attacks, and acute manifestations includes major hysterical attacks, such as prodrome, trance and epileptic states, minor hysterical attacks such as syncope and tetany, twilight states, paroxysmal amnesia, and cataleptic attacks. The second group includes focal hysterical symptoms, paralyses, contractures and spasms, anesthesia, and sensory disorders. Visceral manifestations can be subdivided into spasms, pain, and general and trophic disorders. The diversity of the symptoms of hysteria and its changing clinical presentation calls into question the same hysterical attacks and the same symptoms, which have had only a few differences for over 2,000 years. A new definition of hysteria should be proposed, in that it is a phenomenon that is not pathological, but physiological and expressional.
'Fin-de-Siècle' epidemiology of hysteria.
Luauté JP
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 25273486 · Publisher ↗
An 'explanatory epidemiology' of disorders labelled 'hysteria' towards the end of the 19th century provides precious information--through the numerous statistical works of the period - about the conceptions of practition...
An 'explanatory epidemiology' of disorders labelled 'hysteria' towards the end of the 19th century provides precious information--through the numerous statistical works of the period - about the conceptions of practitioners and the various cultural factors which made this era, in France, 'the golden age' of hysteria. The heyday of hysteria at the end of the century appears to be closely linked to the prestige of Charcot and the promotion of his ideas through the circle of his pupils. The disappearance after his death of hysteria, as he had described it in a defined and systematical manner, is a strong argument for considering it to be a transient mental illness, according to the definition of this concept by Ian Hacking. The regular appearance since then of new nonorganic diseases, avatars of hysteria, with a strong potential for contagiousness and whose causality is exterior to the person, as well as the persistence of the older, more characteristic forms, is evocative of the existence of an ancestral reactional mode taking on various clinical forms according to time and place.
Socioeconomic background of hysteria's metamorphosis from the 18th Century to World War I.
Edelman N, Walusinski O
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 25273485 · Publisher ↗
The many changes in the etiopathogenic theories of hysteria, developed from the end of the 18th century to the end of World War I, can only be understood by studying the social, political, economic, and cultural transfor...
The many changes in the etiopathogenic theories of hysteria, developed from the end of the 18th century to the end of World War I, can only be understood by studying the social, political, economic, and cultural transformations of the Western world during the same period. These transformations, presented below along with concurrent medical discoveries, make it possible to explain the ongoing metamorphosis of both hysteria and the image of the hysteric patient.
Before Charcot.
Pearce JM
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 25273484 · Publisher ↗
From the time of Greco-Roman Medicine, the uncertain nature of hysterical illness was a fertile source of controversy. Because there were no testable objective signs of disease, the diverse ideas relating hysteria to the...
From the time of Greco-Roman Medicine, the uncertain nature of hysterical illness was a fertile source of controversy. Because there were no testable objective signs of disease, the diverse ideas relating hysteria to the uterus and to psychological and physiological causes generated persisting polemics. Theories fluctuated chaotically, influenced by social changes of prosperity or deprivation, current attitudes, and issues of gender. Faced with a large number of patients with such illnesses as well as many with epilepsy, mental illnesses, and organic nervous disorders, Charcot set about investigating hysterics to determine what neurological abnormalities might explain them. His many predecessors, from Sydenham and Willis in the 17th century to Briquet and Bourneville in the 19th century, whose views are outlined in this chapter, both conditioned and influenced his efforts. Charcot succeeded in promoting his work at Salpêtrière, which for a time was respected throughout the world.
Preface. Hippocampus from a neurologist's point of view.
Hennerici MG, Szabo K
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777139 · Publisher ↗
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Hippocampal stroke.
Szabo K
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777138 · Publisher ↗
The first to link disturbance of memory and lesions of the medial temporal lobe was the Russian neurologist von Bechterew, who in 1989 presented the brain of a 60-year-old man who had suffered from severe amnesia. Autops...
The first to link disturbance of memory and lesions of the medial temporal lobe was the Russian neurologist von Bechterew, who in 1989 presented the brain of a 60-year-old man who had suffered from severe amnesia. Autopsy showed bilateral damage of the medial temporal lobe. Several following postmortem case studies confirmed the association between permanent amnesia and bitemporal stroke. Reports of transient memory deficits in unilateral stroke in combination with other neurological and neuropsychological deficits followed. With the advent of brain imaging, persistent or transient amnesia as the sole or primary manifestation of acute - mostly left-sided - hippocampal stroke was described. With the use of modern MRI techniques the identification of typical ischemic stroke lesion patterns affecting the hippocampus has become possible. Although overt cognitive deficits in unilateral hippocampal stroke seem to be rare, a careful neuropsychological examination might be necessary to detect resulting neuropsychological deficits including disturbances of verbal and nonverbal episodic long-term memory and spatial orientation.
Transient global amnesia.
Szabo K
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777137 · Publisher ↗
Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a sudden and severe anterograde memory disturbance accompanied by various degrees of retrograde amnesia and sometimes executive dysfunction. TGA affects elderly individuals and men and w...
Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a sudden and severe anterograde memory disturbance accompanied by various degrees of retrograde amnesia and sometimes executive dysfunction. TGA affects elderly individuals and men and women equally. During the episode, patients cannot recall novel episodic information and therefore repeatedly ask the same questions. They are not fully oriented to space and time. Diagnostic criteria first established in 1985, and elaborated in 1990, demand that there is no clouding of consciousness, other impairments of cognition, or a history of epilepsy or head trauma. An episode of TGA resolves within 24 h leaving a memory gap for the length of the attack. While in rare cases TGA might happen repeatedly, it mostly occurs as a single attack. TGA is considered a benign disorder as memory deficits resolve completely and do not lead to long-term sequelae. In up to 90% of reported TGA cases, a precipitating event - mainly described as physical or emotional stress - is present. The cause of TGA has been a matter of long-standing debate among researchers. In search of an answer, several possible causes (ischemia, migraine, epileptic seizures, or, more recently, a disturbance of venous hemodynamics) have been hypothesized. However, to date there is no scientific proof of any of these mechanisms. By using diffusion-weighted MRI 24-48 h after a TGA episode, small dot-like lesions have been detected in the hippocampus. This has led to the implication that the selective vulnerability of CA1 neurons to metabolic stress might play a role in the pathophysiology of TGA.
Epilepsy and the hippocampus.
Chatzikonstantinou A
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777136 · Publisher ↗
The association between epilepsy and the hippocampus is well known and important. Mesial temporal epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis is a syndromic diagnostic entity and indeed a quite common one. There are different th...
The association between epilepsy and the hippocampus is well known and important. Mesial temporal epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis is a syndromic diagnostic entity and indeed a quite common one. There are different theories on the pathophysiological pathways, as the hippocampus is often involved in seizures, even if they are not generated there. Whether hippocampal sclerosis is a cause or the effect of seizures is a subject of ongoing debate, but the predominant opinion is that seizures probably do not cause relevant hippocampal volume loss in the mature brain. A diagnosis of epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis is made based on typical semiological signs and symptoms, interictal and ictal EEG findings, cerebral imaging, and neuropsychological testing. Antiepileptic medication is indicated as a first-line treatment. Should the epilepsy prove to be medically intractable, which is commonly the case in these patients, an early evaluation regarding epilepsy surgery must be performed. Different epilepsy surgery techniques are available, from minimal ones like the selective amygdalohippocampectomy to more extensive ones like additional temporal lobe resection. Postoperative results concerning seizures and neuropsychological outcomes are very encouraging and depend on various predictive factors. Alternative procedures like stereotactic radiofrequency amygdalohippocampectomy and hippocampal stimulation are currently being assessed, partly with very promising results.
Stress, memory, and the hippocampus.
Wingenfeld K, Wolf OT
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777135 · Publisher ↗
Stress hormones, i.e. cortisol in human and cortisone in rodents, influence a wide range of cognitive functions, including hippocampus-based declarative memory performance. Cortisol enhances memory consolidation, but imp...
Stress hormones, i.e. cortisol in human and cortisone in rodents, influence a wide range of cognitive functions, including hippocampus-based declarative memory performance. Cortisol enhances memory consolidation, but impairs memory retrieval. In this context glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity and hippocampal integrity play an important role. This review integrates findings on the relationships between the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, one of the main coordinators of the stress response, hippocampus, and memory. Findings obtained in healthy participants will be compared with selected mental disorders, including major depressive disorder (MDD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and borderline personality disorder (BPD). These disorders are characterized by alterations of the HPA axis and hippocampal dysfunctions. Interestingly, the acute effects of stress hormones on memory in psychiatric patients are different from those found in healthy humans. While cortisol administration has failed to affect memory retrieval in patients with MDD, patients with PTSD and BPD have been found to show enhanced rather than impaired memory retrieval after hydrocortisone. This indicates an altered sensitivity to stress hormones in these mental disorders.
The hippocampus in neurodegenerative disease.
Moodley KK, Chan D
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777134 · Publisher ↗
AD is the commonest neurodegenerative disorder resulting ultimately in dementia, a stage during which there is a loss of previously acquired intellectual skill and independent occupational and social function. Neurodegen...
AD is the commonest neurodegenerative disorder resulting ultimately in dementia, a stage during which there is a loss of previously acquired intellectual skill and independent occupational and social function. Neurodegenerative changes within the hippocampus and an extended neuronal network involving the medial temporal and medial parietal lobe result in the archetypal memory impairment seen in Alzheimer's disease (AD). As attention focuses increasingly on early diagnosis and treatment of dementia, this understanding of the hippocampal involvement in AD has helped to develop diagnostic tools for use in early disease. However, hippocampal damage is also a common feature among non-AD neurodegenerative dementias. Neuroimaging techniques, in conjunction with behavioral and pathological techniques, can be used to determine the involvement of the hippocampus in AD and other neurodegenerative diseases.
Functional MRI studies of the hippocampus.
Nees F, Pohlack ST
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777133 · Publisher ↗
Developments in tasks and imaging techniques applied over the last decades have yielded substantial support for the hypothesized role of the hippocampus in mnemonic processes. Human imaging research has now moved on to d...
Developments in tasks and imaging techniques applied over the last decades have yielded substantial support for the hypothesized role of the hippocampus in mnemonic processes. Human imaging research has now moved on to disentangle the contributions of the different hippocampal subregions and adjacent cortices, so as to bridge the gap between rodent and human data. Besides the importance of such studies for basic research, the investigation of hippocampal (dys)function has clinical relevance for diseases ranging from neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease or epilepsy to mental disorders such as schizophrenia or anxiety disorders. So far, most of the present review articles and books about the hippocampus and its functions focus on traditional declarative memory paradigms and 'encoding versus retrieval'. In this chapter we concentrate on a less travelled, but not less important, route concerning the role of the hippocampus in a well-established associative learning (encoding) paradigm: pavlovian fear conditioning. Fear conditioning is hypothesized to model aversive associative learning on a nonpathological level and is further assumed to recruit the same networks that are relevant for anxiety disorders, with the hippocampus being specific for contextual fear conditioning. We highlight the findings in humans by addressing its role in mediating spatial and temporal aspects of a context, involving different kinds of a fear-conditioning procedure (delay vs. trace conditioning), and its role in extinction, both from a theoretical and clinical perspective.
Conventional and diffusion-weighted MRI of the hippocampus.
Szabo K, Förster A, Gass A
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777132 · Publisher ↗
The human hippocampus is a highly complex structure located on the medial surface of the cerebral hemispheres as a part of the intralimbic gyrus. For clinical purposes, in addition to routine transverse MRI slices, acqui...
The human hippocampus is a highly complex structure located on the medial surface of the cerebral hemispheres as a part of the intralimbic gyrus. For clinical purposes, in addition to routine transverse MRI slices, acquisitions parallel and perpendicular to the long axis of the hippocampus need to be performed to fully appreciate its curved anatomy. Clinicians should be acquainted with the normal appearance of the hippocampus regarding size, shape, symmetry, and signal as well as with the width and form of the cerebrospinal fluid spaces surrounding the hippocampus to be able to recognize abnormalities. The human hippocampus can be affected in a variety of very different acute or chronic neurological diseases, such as stroke and certain forms of encephalitis or epilepsy and dementia. Many of these pathologies are associated with distinct lesion patterns on conventional MRI. In hippocampal sclerosis, the typical imaging features - T2 hyperintensity, atrophy on T1-weighted images, and disturbed internal structures of the hippocampus - can be reliably diagnosed by visual analysis. Several visual rating scales exist for the evaluation of medial temporal lobe atrophy for the assessment of patients with cognitive disturbances; however, quantitative MRI-based volumetric analysis is increasingly being applied in research as well as clinical studies. In acute neurological disorders, diffusion-weighted imaging has the ability to demonstrate even minute and transient hyperintense hippocampal lesions. On the basis of distinct lesions patterns, diffusion-weighted MRI can provide additional diagnostic information that may facilitate and support a final diagnosis, especially in those cases in which clinical symptoms are inconclusive.
Neuropsychological measures of hippocampal function.
Wicking M, Nees F, Steiger F
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777131 · Publisher ↗
The role of the medial temporal lobe, specifically the hippocampus, in learning and memory has been consistently demonstrated over the past years and has led to the identification of the hippocampus as a target imaging m...
The role of the medial temporal lobe, specifically the hippocampus, in learning and memory has been consistently demonstrated over the past years and has led to the identification of the hippocampus as a target imaging marker for several neurological and psychiatric disorders. Hippocampal dysfunctions and smaller hippocampal volumes have been reported as characteristic for these disorders, and hippocampal asymmetry has been shown to be associated with memory deficits in older adults. These findings underline the importance of screenings for memory functions using neuropsychological cognitive test batteries within the clinical context. To the best of our knowledge, there has been no comprehensive review that has presented neuropsychological tests related to the hippocampus in detail. However, we did not aim to provide a complete overview of neuropsychological tests related to hippocampal function, which would fail in the light of the widespread area. This chapter focuses on neuropsychological tests that assess cognitive functions that depend on the hippocampus in a state-of-the-art fashion and additionally provide the link to several disorders for which hippocampal abnormalities are a common characteristic.
Memory function and the hippocampus.
Opitz B
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777130 · Publisher ↗
There has been a long tradition in memory research of adopting the view of a vital role of the medial temporal lobe and especially the hippocampus in declarative memory. Despite the broad support for this notion, there i...
There has been a long tradition in memory research of adopting the view of a vital role of the medial temporal lobe and especially the hippocampus in declarative memory. Despite the broad support for this notion, there is an ongoing debate about what computations are performed by the different substructures. The present chapter summarizes several accounts of hippocampal functions in terms of the cognitive processes subserved by these structures, the information processed, and the underlying neural operations. Firstly, the value of the distinction between recollection and familiarity for the understanding of the role the hippocampus plays in memory is discussed. Then multiple lines of evidence for the role of the hippocampus in memory are considered. Cumulating evidence suggests that the hippocampus fosters the binding of disparate cortical representations of items and their spatiotemporal context into a coherent representation by means of a sparse conjunctive neural coding. This association of item and context will then lead to the phenomenological experience of recollection. In contrast, surrounding cortical areas have broader neural coding that provide a scalar signal of the similarity between two inputs (e.g. between the encoding and the retrieval). By this they form the basis of a feeling of familiarity, but also might encode the commonalities between these different inputs. However, a more complete picture of the importance of the hippocampus for declarative memories can only be drawn when the interactions of the medial temporal lobe with other brain areas are also taken into account.
What animals can teach clinicians about the hippocampus.
Lavenex P, Banta Lavenex P, Favre G
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777129 · Publisher ↗
Abnormalities in hippocampal structure and function have been reported in a number of human neuropathological and neurodevelopmental disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, autism spectrum disorders, Down syndrome, epi...
Abnormalities in hippocampal structure and function have been reported in a number of human neuropathological and neurodevelopmental disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, autism spectrum disorders, Down syndrome, epilepsy, and schizophrenia. Given the complexity of these disorders, animal studies are invaluable and remain to date irreplaceable, providing fundamental knowledge regarding the basic mechanisms underlying normal and pathological human brain structure and function. However, there is a prominent ill-conceived view in current research that scientists should be restricted to using animal models of human diseases that can lead to results applicable to humans within a few years. Although there is no doubt that translational studies of this kind are important and necessary, limiting animal studies to applicable questions is counterproductive and will ultimately lead to a lack of knowledge and an inability to address human health problems. Here, we discuss findings regarding the normal postnatal development of the monkey hippocampal formation, which provide an essential framework to consider the etiologies of different neuropathological disorders affecting human hippocampal structure and function. We focus on studies of gene expression in distinct hippocampal regions that shed light on some basic mechanisms that might contribute to the etiology of schizophrenia. We argue that researchers, as well as clinicians, should not consider the use of animals in research only as 'animal models' of human diseases, as they will continue to need and benefit from a better understanding of the normal structure and functions of the hippocampus in 'model animals'.
Coordinated network activity in the hippocampus.
Draguhn A, Keller M, Reichinnek S
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777128 · Publisher ↗
The hippocampus expresses a variety of highly organized network states which bind its individual neurons into collective modes of activity. These patterns go along with characteristic oscillations of extracellular potent...
The hippocampus expresses a variety of highly organized network states which bind its individual neurons into collective modes of activity. These patterns go along with characteristic oscillations of extracellular potential known as theta, gamma, and ripple oscillations. Such network oscillations share some important features throughout the entire central nervous system of higher animals: they are restricted to a defined behavioral state, they are mostly generated by subthreshold synaptic activity, and they entrain active neurons to fire action potentials at strictly defined phases of the oscillation cycle, thereby providing a unifying 'zeitgeber' for coordinated multineuronal activity. Recent work from the hippocampus of rodents and humans has revealed how the resulting spatiotemporal patterns support the formation of neuronal assemblies which, in our present understanding, form the neuronal correlate of spatial, declarative, or episodic memories. In this review, we introduce the major types of spatiotemporal activity patterns in the hippocampus, describe the underlying neuronal mechanisms, and illustrate the concept of memory formation within oscillating networks. Research on hippocampus-dependent memory has become a key model system at the interface between cellular and cognitive neurosciences. The next step will be to translate our increasing insight into the mechanisms and systemic functions of neuronal networks into urgently needed new therapeutic strategies.
Structure and vascularization of the human hippocampus.
Tatu L, Vuillier F
Front Neurol Neurosci · 2014 · PMID 24777127 · Publisher ↗
The hippocampus is a temporal brain structure belonging to the limbic lobe and is fundamentally involved in memory processing, learning, and emotions. It consists of two allocortex laminae: the gyrus dentatus and the cor...
The hippocampus is a temporal brain structure belonging to the limbic lobe and is fundamentally involved in memory processing, learning, and emotions. It consists of two allocortex laminae: the gyrus dentatus and the cornu ammonis, one rolled up inside the other, creating a bulge in the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle. Arterial vascularization of the hippocampus is dependent on the collateral branches of the posterior cerebral artery and the anterior choroidal artery, forming the network of superficial hippocampal arteries that in turn lead to deep intrahippocampal arteries. Venous vascularization is provided by the intrahippocampal veins, which drain into the superficial hippocampal veins. Knowledge of anatomical organization and vascularization of the hippocampus is essential to understanding its dysfunctions and its appearance on MRI.
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